Enhancer signatures in the prognosis and diagnosis of cancers and other disorders

ABSTRACT

It has been discovered that enhancer signatures distinguish enhancer elements from other regulatory elements and that the characteristic enhancer signatures vary in a cell-type specific manner. These discoveries provide the basis for novel methods of predicting, diagnosing and monitoring of diseases, particularly cancer.

This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/982,845, filed Oct. 26, 2007.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Temporal and tissue-specific gene expression in mammals depends on the cis-regulatory elements in the genome. These non-coding sequences can be divided into many classes depending on their regulatory functions [1]. Among the better-characterized elements are promoters, enhancers, silencers, and insulators. Transcription initiates from promoters, which serve as anchor points for the recruitment of the general transcriptional machinery [2,3]. Enhancers act to recruit a complex array of transcription factors and chromatin-modifying activities that facilitate gene transcription [4,5]. Repressor elements, on the other hand, bind proteins and/or modify chromatin structure to inhibit gene transcription [4,6]. Insulator elements provide additional regulation by preventing the spread of heterochromatin and restricting transcriptional enhancers from activating unrelated promoters [7]. Besides these four classes of cis-regulatory sequences, there are also locus control regions that facilitate the activation of a cluster of genes through still poorly understood mechanisms. A recent comprehensive survey of 1% of the human genome, using a combination of multiple genomic and computational methods, has identified a large number of transcripts and potential regulatory elements. However, it remains to be resolved how each class of regulatory element contributes to cell-type specific gene expression [8].

While all types of cis-regulatory elements can contribute to the cell-type specific gene expression program, recent studies have mainly focused on the role of promoters as a driving force behind tissue-specific and differential expression. These studies have revealed that many promoters contain transcription factor binding motifs for tissue-specific factors [9,10]. Indeed, some experimental evidence indicates that promoters are capable of directing certain degrees of cell-type specific expression in transient transfection assays [11]. However, it remains unclear to what extent promoters play a role in differential gene expression. On the other hand, it has long been recognized that enhancers are critical for the proper temporal and spatial expression from the gene promoter [12,13]. While the complex interplay between promoters and enhancers can occur across great distances in the genome [14,15], many enhancers have been shown to be within “close” proximity of the target promoter [13,16,17,18]. A number of studies have provided various means by which enhancers can regulate expression levels, including frequency of promoter-enhancer interaction, length of interactions [13,19], as well as strength of transcription factor binding [20,21,22].

Whether an enhancer is distal or proximal, how it determines its target promoter is unclear. One means of modulating which interactions occur is through insulator elements in the genome that act as enhancer-blockers and prevent such communication by separating enhancers from neighboring promoters [23,24,25]. Additionally, many insulator elements are thought to define blocks in which promoter-enhancer interactions can occur. Promoters and enhancers within these blocks are likely brought within close proximity to one another through chromatin looping [26]. The chromatin is organized into loops via insulator-insulator interactions or by localization to structures such as the nuclear envelope [26,27,28,29]. In this manner, insulators play a critical role in defining promoter-enhancer interactions.

In order to understand the roles of promoters, enhancers, and insulators in cell-type specific gene expression, we have systematically characterized the binding of general transcription factors, the insulator binding protein CTCF and several active chromatin modifications in 1% of the human genome in five diverse cell types. We have previously mapped chromatin modification profiles in the ENCODE regions in HeLa cells, and demonstrated that chromatin signatures are predictive of both promoters and enhancers [30]. Here, we generated maps of active promoters and enhancers, along with the insulator binding protein CTCF, in four additional cell types, including the leukemia cell line K562, immortalized lymphoblasts GM06690 (GM), undifferentiated human embryonic stem cells (ES) and BMP4-induced differentiated ES (dES). We show that the pattern of CTCF binding across all five cell types is remarkably similar, and that chromatin modifications at promoters are also largely invariant. In contrast, chromatin modifications at enhancers are highly dynamic across cell types. We also observe that differential gene expression correlates with differential enrichment of chromatin at promoters, as well as with changes in enhancer numbers. These results indicate that enhancers play an important role in cell-type dependent gene expression, and highlight the importance of identifying these sequences for understanding mechanisms of cell-type specific gene expression.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention is based on the discovery that characteristic chromatin signatures are associated with enhancers and, further, that within the genus of characteristic chromatin signatures associated with enhancers, the signatures differ in a cell-type specific way.

One embodiment of the invention is concerned with the general identification of enhancers based on the characteristic chromatin modifications found to be associated with this class of regulatory element. Another embodiment is concerned with the identification of differentially active and inactive genes based on the presence and distribution of enhancers. A third embodiment involves the monitoring, diagnosis and/or prognosis of diseases based on the presence and distribution of enhancer signatures associated with particular cell types and levels of expression of gene products within the cell types.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1 a and b show the results of ChIP-chip analysis of the amounts of several different chromatin modifications including acetylated and methylated histones in selected promoters and enhancers.

FIG. 2 shows the results of computational clustering analysis of chromatin modifications at the transcriptional start sites (TSS's) across 5 cell types.

FIG. 3 shows the results of computational clustering and ChIP-chip analysis of the enrichment patterns of CTCF binding in 1% of the human genome across six cell types.

FIG. 4 shows the results of k-means clustering analysis of the enrichment patterns of chromatin modification in various p300 binding sites.

FIG. 5 shows the results of analysis of chromatin modification patterns of predicted enhancers across five cell types.

FIGS. 6 a-c show plots of differential gene expression as a function of the difference in enrichment of chromatin for three different chromatin-associated proteins.

FIGS. 7 a-f show the results of comparative analysis of enhancer clustering near genes being differentially expressed and genes not being differentially expressed.

FIG. 8 provides a summary of the results of CUP-chip and expression experiments.

FIGS. 9 a-g depict the results of verification studies of histone-modification-based prediction of enhancers.

FIG. 10 depicts the results of studies showing that predicted ES enhancers are enriched in known ES-specific transcription factors.

FIGS. 11 a and b show the results of comparative analysis of promoter histone modifications in differentially expressed genes and repressed genes.

FIGS. 12 a-f show plots of the relationship between differential enrichment of chromatin with various chromatin-associated proteins and differential gene expression.

FIGS. 13 a and b graphically depict the results of a comparison of the observed distribution of adjacent TSS-TSS and CTCF-CTCF distances with what would be expected with random placement of sites.

FIG. 14 a shows the results of comparative analysis of the distribution the closest enhancer-TSS distance in genes differentially expressed and genes not being differentially expressed; 14 b shows the correlation between enhancer numbers and differential gene expression.

FIGS. 15 a-f show the results of a parallel analysis to that shown in FIG. 7, this time using TSS-distal p300 sites rather than enhancers.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Abbreviations: ChIP, chromatin immunoprecipitation; ChM-chip, chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with DNA microarrays; ChIP-Seq, chromatin immunoprecipitation coupled with high-throughput parallel sequencing; dES, BMP4 differentiated embryonic stem cells; ES, embryonic stem cells; GM, GM06990 lymphoblast cell line; H3, histone H3; H3K4Me1, histone H3 lysine 4 monomethylation; H3K4Me2, histone H3 lysine 4 dimethylation; H3K4Me3, histone H3 lysine 4 trimethylation; H3K9Ac, histone H3 lysine 9 acetylation; H3K18Ac, histone H3 lysine 18 acetylation; H3K27Ac, histone H3 lysine 27 acetylation; IMR90, fetal fibroblast cell line; K562, leukemia cell line K562; TSS(s), transcription start site(s).

Methods Cell Culture

Passage 32 H1 cells were grown in mTeSR1 medium [45] on Matrigel (BD Biosciences, San Jose, Calif.), for 5 passages. 15×10 cm² dishes were grown using standard mTeSR1 culture conditions and 20×10 cm² dishes were cultured in mTeSR1 supplemented with 200 ng/ml BMP4 (RND systems, Minneapolis, Minn.). 5 days post passage, when cells were approximately 70% confluent, H1 p32 cells grown in unmodified mTeSR1 were cross-linked. To cross-link, 2.5 ml of cross-linking buffer (5M NaCl, 0.5M EDTA, 0.5M EGTA, 1M HEPES pH 8, 37% fresh formaldehyde) was added to 10 ml culture medium and incubated at 37° C. for 30 minutes, 1.25 ml of 2.5M glycine was added to stop the cross-linking reaction. Cells were removed from the culture dishes with a cell scraper, and collected by centrifugation for 10 minutes at 2500 rpm at 4° C. Cells were washed three times with cold PBS. After the final spin, cells were pelleted and flash frozen using liquid nitrogen. BMP4-treated cells were subjected to the same procedure after 6 days of exposure.

K562 (#CCL-243) cells were acquired from ATCC (www.atcc.org). K562 cells were grown to a density of 2.5×10⁵ cells/mL in Iscove's modified Dulbecco's medium with 4 mM L-glutamine containing 1.5 g/L sodium bicarbonate, and 10% fetal bovine serum at 37° C., 5% CO2. GM06990 (#GM06990) B-lymphocyte cells were acquired from Coriell (www.ccr.coriell.org). GM cells were grown to a density of 2.5×10⁵ cells/mL in RPMI 1640 medium with 2mM L-glutamine containing 15% fetal bovine serum at 37° C., 5% CO2. HeLa growth conditions were previously described [30].

ChIP-chip Analysis

ChIP-chip procedure and antibodies against p300, TAF1, histone H3, H3K4Me1, H3K4Me2, H3K4Me3, and CTCF were previously described [30,39,46]. Additional antibodies are commercially available [α-H3K9Ac Abcam ab4441; α-H3K18Ac Abcam ab1191; and α-H3K27Ac Abcam ab4729]. All ChIP-chip experiments were completed in triplicate, except for those with normal and BMP4-treated ES cells. All ChIP-DNA samples were hybridized to NimbleGen ENCODE HG17 microarrays (NimbleGen Systems). DNA was labeled according to NimbleGen Systems' protocol. Samples were hybridized at 42° C. for 16 hours on a MAUI 12-bay hybridization station (BioMicro Systems). Microarrays were washed, scanned and stripped for re-use following protocols from NimbleGen Systems. Gene expression data for HeLa, K562, and GM cells were obtained using HU133 Plus 2.0 microarrays (Affymetrix).

Identification of CTCF and p300 Binding Sites

The Mpeak program can reliably detect binding sites of transcription factors, and has worked well in previous studies to identify TAF1, CTCF, and p300 binding sites [30,39,40,46]. We used the Mpeak program to determine binding sites of CTCF [39] and p300 [30] peaks. Specifically, we called a CTCF peak such if there was a stretch of 4 probes separated by at most 300 by that were at least 2.5 standard deviations above the mean. For p300, we used a simple FDR cutoff of 0.0001 to define peaks as in Heintzman et al. We used different parameters for consistency with previous publications, but swapping these parameters did not vary the results significantly.

Enhancer Predictions

The procedure used to predict enhancers follows closely that in Heintzman et al. [30]. Specifically, we first binned the tiling ChIP-chip data into 100 by bins, averaging multiple probes that fell into the same bin. Empty bins were interpolated if the distance between flanking non-empty bins was less than 1 kb, and set to 0 otherwise. We scanned this binned data, keeping only those windows 1) in the top 10% of the intensity distribution and 2) having H3K4Me1 and H3K4Me3 profiles in the top 1% of all windows using the same training set of sites as in Heintzman et al (Figure la,b). We used a discriminative filter on H3K4Me1 and H3K4Me3 to keep only those sites that correlated with the averaged enhancer training set more than the promoter training set. Finally, we applied a descriptive filter on H3K4Me1 and H3K4Me3, keeping only those remaining predictions having a correlation of at least 0.5 with an averaged training set.

Expression Array Analysis

We used the GCRMA package [47] to normalize Affymetrix mRNA expression arrays for HeLa, GM, and K562 cell types. For every pair of these cell types, we also used GCRMA to find differentially expressed and repressed genes using a p-value cutoff of 0.01 in conjunction with a fold change cutoff of 2.0. The expression data for ES and dES cell types were generated using the Nimblegen platform, and thus were not directly comparable to the Affymetrix expression data. As such, we could only use this expression data to compare ES and dES cell types. As a conservative measure of differential expression, we used a fold-change cutoff of 2.

Gene Expression Analysis for ES and dES Cells

For gene expression analysis, we isolated the total RNA from H1 ES cells or BMP4-treated cells using Trizol (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's recommendations. PolyA RNA was then isolated using the Oligotex mRNA Mini Kit (Qiagen). The mRNA's were then reversed transcribed, labeled, mixed with differently labeled sonicated genomic DNA, and hybridized to a single array that tiled transcripts from approximately 36,000 human loci from the hg17 assembly (NimbleGen Systems). Detailed descriptions of array design, labeling, hybridization and data analysis are provided below. We set the expression level of genes in undifferentiated cells as 1 and calculated the relative fold change of individual genes in the dES cells.

Randomization and p-Values

To determine the expected distribution of adjacent element-to-element distances, we randomly placed the same number of elements into the ENCODE regions, with each base having an equal probability of being selected. To avoid complications such as repeat-masked regions, we restricted our sampling to only those regions covered by the NimbleGen tiling array.

The p-values for correlations were obtained by using the Matlab corr function. This p-value measures the probability that there is no correlation between the two variables, against the alternative that the correlation is non-zero. The p-values for Wilcoxon rank sum tests were obtained from the Matlab ranksum function.

Gene Expression Data Analysis for ES and dES Cells

The Human Whole Genome Expression arrays containing ˜385,000 60-mer probes were manufactured by NimbleGen Systems (http://www.nimblegen.com). This array design tiles transcripts from approximately 36,000 human locus identifiers for the hg17 (UCSC) assembly with typically 10 or 11 probes per transcript.

Total RNA was enriched for the polyA fraction using Oligotex mRNA Mini Kit (Qiagen). Enriched mRNA (250 ng) was primed using random hexamers and reverse transcribed using Superscript III (Invitrogen) in the presence of 5-(3-aminoallyl)-dUTP (Ambion). The purified product was coupled to Cy5-NHS ester (Amersham). Similarly, sonicated genomic DNA (2 μg) was primed with random octamers and labeled using Klenow fragments in the presence of 5-(3-aminoallyl)-dUTP. The resulting product was coupled to Cy3-NHS ester (Amersham). Cy3-labeled genomic DNA (4.5 μg) was used as a reference and added along with the Cy5-labeled mRNA sample (2 μg) onto each array. Hybridizations were performed in 3.6×SSC buffer with 35% formamide and 0.07% SDS at 42° C. overnight. Arrays were then washed, dried, and scanned using a GenePix 4000B scanner.

Gene expression raw data were extracted using NimbleScan software v2.1. Considering that the signal distribution of the RNA sample is distinct from that of the gDNA sample, the signal intensities from RNA channels in all eight arrays were normalized with the Robust Multiple-chip Analysis (RMA) algorithm [47]. Separately, the same normalization procedure was performed on the signals from the gDNA samples. For a given gene, the median-adjusted ratio between its normalized intensity from the RNA channel and that from the gDNA channel was then calculated as follows:

Ratio=intensity from RNA channel/(intensity from gDNA channel+median intensity of all genes from the gDNA channel).

We found that this median-adjusted ratio gave the most consistent results when compared to other published human ES cell expression data, such as SAGE library information available from the Cancer Genome Anatomy Project (CGAP). Consequently, we used this median-adjusted ratio as the measurement for the gene expression level.

Results

Mapping of Chromatin Modifications, TAF1, p300, and CTCF Binding in 1% of the Human Genome in Diverse Cell Types

We performed ChIP-chip analysis [30] to determine the chromatin modification patterns along 44 human loci selected by the ENCODE consortium as common targets for genomic analysis [31], totaling 30 Mbp. We investigated the patterns of six specific histone modifications: acetylated histone H3 lysine 9, 18 and 27 (H3K9Ac, H3K18Ac and H3K27Ac), and mono-, di- and tri-methylated histone H3 lysine 4 (H3K4Me1, H3K4Me2, and H3K4Me3). We also examined binding of a component of the basal transcriptional machinery TAF1 in all five cell types to identify active promoters, along with the transcriptional coactivator p300 in HeLa, GM, and K562 cells to identify enhancers [32] (FIG. 8). ChIP samples were amplified, labeled, and hybridized to tiling oligonucleotide microarrays covering the nonrepetitive sequences of 30 Mbp at 38-bp resolution. Each array was loess normalized, and replicates were quantile normalized to determine average enrichments for each marker at every probe, generating highresolution maps of histone modifications and transcriptional regulator binding for 1% of the human genome.

Previously, we demonstrated that active promoters and enhancers could be determined by distinct chromatin signatures of H3K4Me1 and H3K4Me3 at these functional elements [30]. Curiously, we had not observed any consistent enrichment of acetylated histones near enhancers, even those bound by the known histone acetyltransferase p300. One possible explanation for this is the specificity of the antigen recognition of the pan-H3 and H4 acetylation antibodies used in the previous study. We hypothesized that using antibodies specific for individual acetylated histones would improve recovery of consistently acetylated histones, especially at p300 binding sites. Focusing on HeLa cells, we indeed found that three additional histone modification marks, namely H3K9Ac, H3K18Ac and H3K27Ac are also part of the chromatin patterns at promoters and enhancers. All three acetylation marks localize to active transcription start sites (TSSs), and remain absent, as do other chromatin modifications, at inactive promoters (FIG. 1 A). These results agree with individual promoter studies observing acetylation or hyperacetylation at active promoters [17,32,33], as well as with large-scale histone modification studies in yeast [34,35]. HeLa enhancers marked by distal p300 binding sites show clear enrichment of H3K18Ac and H3K27Ac, while H3K9Ac is much reduced (FIG. 1B). These results indicate that H3K9Ac is preferentially associated with active promoters, while H3K18Ac and H3K27Ac are associated with both promoters and enhancers.

Most Human Promoters are Universally Associated With a Set of Active Chromatin Marks in Different Cell Types

A cell's gene expression program uniquely defines its cell type, and modulation of the chromatin state of a cell is a key component of this program [34,36]. Given the diversity of the five cell types used in this study, we hypothesized that the chromatin modifications at promoters would uniquely define each cell type. To visualize the cell-type specificity of chromatin modification patterns at promoters, we simultaneously clustered the ChIP enrichment ratios for three histone modifications associated with active promoters (H3K4Me1, H3K4Me3 and H3K27Ac) and TAF1 within 10 kb windows centered at Gencode [37] TSSs for all cell types. We expected to recover large clusters of promoters specific to each cell type. Unexpectedly, however, we found that the chromatin signatures at virtually all TSSs were remarkably similar across cell types (FIG. 2).

Almost half (1296/2690=48.2%) of the promoters belonged to cluster G4, which generally lacks enrichment of chromatin marks typically found at active promoters. For the remaining clusters, the chromatin modification patterns appeared nearly identical across all five cell types. To quantify this, we defined a cell type's enrichment profile as the sum of the log ratio enrichment values of H3K4Me1, H3K4Me3, H3K27Ac, and TAF1 for each Gencode gene. We then calculated the Pearson correlation coefficient between enrichment profiles from different cell types (Table 1a). The enrichment profiles were highly correlated between all pairs of cell types, with an average correlation coefficient of 0.79, supporting the notion of the generally invariant nature of the chromatin marks at TSSs. Thus, this large-scale view indicated that roughly half of the promoters were consistently inactive across these five cell types, and that the remaining promoters were in general commonly marked by common histone modification patterns.

CTCF Binding in the Genome is Generally Cell-Type Invariant

Since the cell-type specificity of epigenetic marks at promoters appears limited, we examined two other classes of cis-regulatory elements to determine if they were localized in a cell-type specific manner Insulator elements play key roles in restricting enhancers from activating inappropriate promoters, thereby defining the boundaries of gene regulatory domains [26].

Nearly all insulator elements that have been experimentally defined in the mammalian genome require the insulator binding protein CTCF to function [38]. Our previous genome-wide location analysis of the insulator binding protein CTCF in human fibroblasts indicated that CTCF binding is closely correlated with the distribution of genes, and is highly conserved throughout evolution, consistent with its key role in insulator function [39]. It is possible that CTCF localization could vary between cell types, contributing to cell-type specific gene expression. To test this hypothesis, we performed ChIP-chip to map CTCF binding sites in the ENCODE regions in all five cell types. After loess normalization, we used the Mpeak program [40] to identify CTCF binding sites (see Methods). We used a consistent set of parameters, calling a binding site such when at least 4 probes within a 300 by window were enriched at least 2.5 standard deviations above the mean. Using this method, there was an average of 517 CTCF binding sites identified for each cell type. On average, the overlap of CTCF binding sites from different cell types was a remarkable 82.8%, supporting the notion that CTCF binding sites are indeed cell-type independent, at a degree that is much higher than previously appreciated.

Peak finding is not perfect, so to further assess the cell-type specificity of CTCF binding, we merged CTCF binding sites found within 2.5 kb from sites in different cell types, giving a set of 729 non-redundant sites. To visualize the cell-type specificity of CTCF, we then created a heat-map of CTCF binding centered at these sites across all five cell types (FIG. 3). Strikingly, the correspondence between all cell types was nearly identical. Computing the enrichment profile of CTCF for each of the five cell types, we found that the average Pearson correlation coefficient between all pairs of profiles was remarkably high at 0.72 (Table 1b), comparable to the correlation coefficient of 0.79 observed at promoters. These results indicated that CTCF binding is largely cell-type invariant. We used this set of 729 CTCF binding sites for further analysis.

Enhancers are Cell-Type Specific

Not observing epigenetic cell-type specificity at promoters and insulators, we tested if nhancers were localized in a cell-type specific manner. First, using very stringent criteria, we defined active enhancers to be binding sites of p300, a histone acetyltransferase and coactivator protein. We identified a total of 411 TSS-distal p300 binding sites in HeLa, GM, and K562 cell lines. We observed that, unlike CTCF and chromatin modifications at promoters, the localization of p300 binding sites appears unique to each cell type in the three cell types where p300 ChIP-chip analysis was performed (FIG. 4). The notion of cell-type specificity of p300 binding sites was supported by the extremely low correlations observed: the average pair-wise Pearson correlation coefficient at p300 binding sites was -0.11 (Table 1c), compared to the much higher correlations 0.79 and 0.72 observed at promoters and insulators, respectively. More strikingly, p300 binding sites were largely cell-type specific: of the 411 distal peaks recovered from the three cell types, the vast majority (378, 92.9%) were unique to a single cell type, 29 (7.1%) were shared among exactly two cell types, and 4 (1.0%) were common among all three cell types.

While the presence of p300 is sufficient to indicate an enhancer, p300 is not necessarily found at all enhancers. To obtain a more complete catalog of enhancers, we relied on the approach of Heintzman et al [30] (see Methods). Briefly, using a sliding window on H3K4Me1 and H3K4Me3, we scanned for chromatin modifications resembling a training set of enhancer patterns defined by the p300 binding sites in HeLa cells. We then kept only those predictions having a Pearson correlation of at least 0.5 with the training set and that had histone modification patterns correlating more with the enhancer training set than with promoter patterns (Tables 2-6). Consistent with the chromatin signatures of p300 binding sites, the putative enhancers were highly enriched in the chromatin modifications H3K4Me1 and H3K27Ac, but had no enrichment of H3K4Me3 (FIG. 5). This was in agreement with our previous findings, in which several predicted enhancers were functionally validated [30].

Several lines of evidence supported the idea that the histone-modification-based predictions of enhancers are truly enhancers. First, we compared the predicted enhancers to DNase I hypersensitive (HS) sites, as hypersensitivity is a hallmark of enhancers. Using a recently published set of HS sites [40] mapped in HeLa, GM, K562, and H9 ES cells, we computed the percentage of predicted enhancers within 2.5 kb of HS sites (FIG. 9 a-d). For comparison, we also computed the overlap percentage of 100 sets of randomly placed enhancers restricted to regions on the ChIPchip microarray. We noticed that predicted enhancers in HeLa (53.0% overlap, Z-score=20.4, p=3.2E-93), GM (38.2% overlap, Z-score=14.4, p=5.1E-47), K562 (overlap=62.6%, Z-score =22.7, p=3.9E-114), and overlap, Z-score=18.0, p=1.0E-72) were enriched in HS sites in their respective cell types. Thus, the notion that the predicted enhancers actually are enhancers was supported by HS data. We also noticed that there were often cases where predicted enhancers from one cell type overlapped significantly with another cell type, suggesting that there is some sharing of enhancers between cell types. However, it was always the case that the overlap was highest for predicted enhancers and HS sites of the same cell type, indicating that many of the enhancers are cell-type specific.

Second, enhancers were defined to be regions in the genome bound to transcription factors and co-activators. To verify the predicted enhancers, we compared their overlap with p300 binding sites. For every cell line where we mapped p300 binding, we observed significant enrichment of predicted enhancers at p300 binding sites (HeLa: 86.4% overlap, Z-score=27.7 , p=2.9E-169; GM: 79.2% overlap, Z-score=35.7, p=4.6E-279; K562: 63.6% overlap, Z-score=23.3, p=1.7E-120) (FIG. 13 e-g), again supporting the notion that the predicted enhancers were real. To further validate the predicted enhancers in the ES cell line, we relied on the definition of enhancers as binding sites for transcription factors and compared the predicted enhancers with previously mapped binding sites for the ES-specific transcription factors Oct4, Sox2, and Nanog [42] (FIG. 10). Compared to predicted enhancers from other cell types, we noticed greater than 2-fold enrichment of the predicted ES enhancers with these ES-specific factors. Although we did not have the corresponding functional data for the dES cell type, several lines of evidence suggested that they were also real. First, like the other cell types, the histone modification patterns at predicted dES enhancers were enriched in H3K4Me1 and H3K27Ac, but lacked H3K4Me3. Second, there was a significant enrichment of dES enhancers at HS sites and p300 binding sites from the other cell types, indicating that at least some of these dES enhancers were real.

Next, we addressed the cell-type specificity of the predicted enhancers. As we expected the localization pattern of enhancers to resemble that of p300, we hypothesized that the predicted enhancers were also localized in a cell-type specific manner. To see if this was supported visually, we performed computational clustering on all predicted enhancers, encompassing chromatin modifications from all five cell types (FIG. 5). Like p300 binding sites, the predicted enhancers are often cell-type specific: of the 1423 non-redundant putative enhancers recovered from all cell types, 908 (63.8%) were unique to one cell type, 345 (24.2%) were shared between two cell types, 128 (9.0%) between three cell types, and 34 (2.4%) between four cell types. Only 8 enhancers (0.6%) were common among all five cell types. To quantify the cell-type specificity of enhancers further, we computed the enrichment profiles of histone modifications for each cell type, and found the average Pearson correlation coefficient between all pairs of cell types to be merely 0.14 (Table 1d). This low correlation was comparable to the average correlation observed at p300, but was strikingly different from those observed at promoters and CTCF binding sites. These results indicated that chromatin modifications at enhancers distinguish between cell types more so than chromatin modifications at promoters or CTCF binding at insulators.

Explaining Cell-Type Specific Gene Expression

Since promoters, insulators, and enhancers are critical for regulating the expression of each gene, we expected that differences in chromatin modifications or transcription factor binding to these elements between different cell types might help explain cell-type specific gene expression program. To better define the roles of each class of element in differential gene expression, we focused on a subset of 54 genes that show at least 2-fold differential transcription between any pairs of two cell types from HeLa, K562 and GM.

Changes in Promoter Chromatin Sstructure at Differentially Expressed Genes Correlated With Transcriptional Changes

We have observed that the histone modification patterns at promoters across all five cell types are invariant at a global level (FIG. 1). But this is likely because the vast majority of genes are expressed at similar levels between the cell types. For this reason, we focused analysis on differentially expressed genes in HeLa, GM, and K562 cells, for which we had Affymetrix expression data. For each pair of cell types, we used the GCRMA package with a p-value cutoff of 0.01 and a fold-change cutoff of 2.0, to find differentially expressed genes. Of the 426 genes with expression data in the ENCODE regions, we observed 54 genes differentially expressed 99 times between the three cell types. Previous studies have indicated that absolute gene expression levels correlate with histone modification enrichment at promoters [34,36]. We noticed that some differentially expressed genes had noticeable differences in chromatin enrichment (FIG. 11 a), while others did not (FIG. 11 b). To quantify this, we computed the change in enrichment of histone modifications at each of the differentially expressed genes and compared this to gene induction (FIGS. 6 a-c, 12 a-f). Indeed, we found a positive correlation between differential chromatin enrichment and differential induction, especially for H3K4Me3 (Pearson correlation coefficient c=0.74), H3K18Ac (c=0.69), and TAF1 (c=0.68). This observation was consistent with previous findings [34,36].

Enhancers are Clustered

As described above, chromatin modifications and co-activator binding at enhancers are generally cell-type specific, supporting the notion of their role in mediating cell-type specific gene expression programs. To further understand the role of enhancers in cell-type specific gene expression, we examined the distribution of predicted enhancers in the human genome. To obtain a coarse view of the localization pattern of enhancers, we first examined the distribution of distances between adjacent enhancers. We observed that enhancers are more highly clustered than expected at random (Wilcoxon p=1.1E-27) (FIGS. 7 a, 15 a), a result which has also been observed in Drosophila [43]. In comparison, we observed an enrichment of small TSS-TSS distances, indicative of clustering of TSSs (Wilcoxon p=0, Matlab) (FIG. 13 a), which is also consistent with previous studies [44]. However, the same cannot be said of CTCF-CTCF distances, which appear indistinguishable from what is expected from a random placement of sites (Wilcoxon p=0.1268) (FIG. 13 b).

Enhancers Were Enriched Near Cell-Type Specific Genes

Having observed clustering of both enhancers and TSSs, we hypothesized that clustering of enhancers is associated with cell-type specific gene expression. To test this, we again focused on differentially expressed genes between pairs of cell types. We counted the number of enhancers near the differentially expressed genes in the neighboring domains defined by consensus CTCF sites. We found that enhancers were enriched near differentially expressed genes as compared to the same genes that are differentially repressed in another cell type, and this enrichment was largely confined within CTCF binding sites that directly flanked the gene's TSS (FIGS. 7 b, 15 b). On average within this block, there were 0.82 enhancers per differentially downregulated gene, while there were 1.83 enhancers per differentially upregulated gene (FIGS. 7 c, 15 c). This 2.2-fold difference indicated that the cell-type specific expression was influenced by enhancers and that the action of enhancers was distance-dependent and favoring proximal promoters. When we focused only on the enhancer closest to the differentially expressed gene rather than all enhancers within a CTCF block, we found smaller difference between the distributions of enhancers in up- and downregulated genes (FIG. 14 a). The smaller 1.76-fold difference observed here further emphasizes that multiple enhancers, and not just the single closest enhancer, are likely required to regulate differential gene expression of a single promoter.

Enhancers Acted Synergistically, and Effects of Individual Enhancers Were Generally Weak

There were 1355 enhancers identified in the HeLa, GM, and K562 cell lines (Tables 2-4), with nearly half (625 46.1%) in a CTCF block that also contained at least one of the 426 promoters for which we have expression data. Of these 426 promoters, 54 (12.7%) were differentially expressed in either HeLa, GM, or K562, and they were next to 158 (25.3%) of the 625 enhancers. While the enhancers were present in significantly enriched numbers near differentially expressed genes than would be expected for random placement (p=8.2E-17) (FIGS. 7 d, 15 d), the vast majority of enhancers were not near these cell-type specific genes, and likely contribute to expression of the other genes. This, together with the observation that enhancer localizations were vastly different between cell types, indicated that there is a massive rewiring of a cell's cis-regulatory network to give rise to changes in gene expression between cell types. Alternatively, given the recent findings that the human genome is pervasively expressed [8], it is possible that many enhancers are functioning to regulate the tissue-specific expression of many yet-uncharacterized genes.

The presence of multiple enhancers at differentially upregulated genes raises the possibility that enhancers may act cooperatively to regulate gene expression, and that the individual enhancer is weak. If enhancers generally modulate expression weakly, we would expect genes not differentially expressed to have minimal changes in enhancer numbers. To test this, we compared the distribution of changes in enhancer numbers for differentially expressed genes to those that were not. We found that the average change in enhancer counts was 1.47 for differentially expressed genes, whereas this figure was −0.05 for all other genes (t-test p=4.9E-6) (FIGS. 7 e, 15 e). This supports the notion that enhancers are generally weak, and that the cis-regulatory networks of different cells are vastly different while maintaining mostly similar expression profiles.

We noticed that while some active promoters are near a single enhancer, others are near multiple enhancers. This led us to ask if there is a relationship between a gene's induction level and the number of enhancers in the gene's CTCF block. Given that enhancers are positive-acting, there are several distinct possibilities: 1) the presence of multiple enhancers can have the same effect as the presence of a single enhancer, 2) enhancers have an additive effect on gene expression, or 3) enhancers synergistically upregulate gene expression such that the output is greater than the effect of adding individual enhancers. Indeed, we found that the latter is likely to be true: as the number of enhancers increased (FIGS. 7 f, 15 f, 14 b), differential expression increased linearly on a log scale (Pearson correlation=0.69). Together, these results indicated that the effect of a single enhancer on gene expression is generally weak, and that gene activation by enhancers is highly cooperative and offers multiple points of control to fine-tune transcriptional output.

While these properties of enhancers were shared by predicted enhancers in each cell type, all of the above results also held when considering enhancers stringently defined as TSS-distal p300 binding sites (FIG. 15).

The identity of a mammalian cell is largely defined by its unique gene-expression profile. To understand the mechanisms that determine cell-type specific transcription, we have localized the binding sites of general transcription factors, the insulator protein CTCF and a number of histone modifications in 1% of the human genome in five diverse cell types. Using a previously defined chromatin signature for enhancers, we predicted a total of 1,423 non-redundant enhancers in these genome regions (Tables 2-6). The systematic, unbiased map of transcriptional regulatory elements in five different cell types allowed us to assess the differential roles of promoters, enhancers and insulators in cell-type specific gene expression. Contrary to expectations, we found that, from a global perspective, the chromatin modifications at promoters were remarkably invariant across cell types. But differences in enrichment of chromatin modifications did occur at a small set of promoters, and these differences correlated with differential gene expression. The binding of insulator protein CTCF to the genome was also nearly identical between different cells. In contrast, the majority of enhancers appeared to be epigenetically marked in a cell-type specific manner, and were enriched near genes with cell-type specific expression. Taken together, these observations strongly indicated that enhancers play important roles in driving cell-type specific gene-expression programs.

The observation that most promoters are commonly associated with active histone modifications in diverse cell types is surprising, and implies that most human promoters adopt a similar chromatin architecture in diverse cell types and lineages. Only a small fraction of the promoters take on different chromatin modifications that correlate with transcriptional changes of these genes. If the majority of the promoters exist in a similar chromatin configuration in different cell types, then what causes each cell to express its unique set of transcriptome? These results can be explained by a model in which the majority of promoters remain open and competent for transcriptional initiation in diverse cell types, but the actual level of transcription is modulated by the enhancers, whose activities are usually restricted to specific cell lineages and developmental stages. Consistent with this model, the enhancers that we identified in the ENCODE regions share several general properties: First, the enhancers are highly enriched near differentially expressed genes; Second, they are often located at considerable distances from active promoters and clustered together; Third, there is a remarkable synergistic relationship between enhancer numbers and differential expression of a gene, implying that single enhancers are often weak and have a small influence on gene expression. This model suggests that activation of cell-type specific gene expression will likely require the action of multiple enhancers.

The complex interaction of transcriptional regulators bound to cis-regulatory elements provides the basis for regulation of gene transcription. However, determining the role of each cis-regulatory element in gene expression has been limited to individual gene studies. Our results provide a large-scale, multiple cell-type view of promoters, enhancers and insulators, revealing important aspects of regulatory mechanisms, such as invariable insulator binding and highly specific enhancers that modulate the level of expression from promoters within CTCF blocks. The highly invariant nature of CTCF binding across this diverse assortment of cell types suggests that insulator binding is likely a stable feature of all human cells. This degree of consistency is higher than expected from our previous genome-wide study [37]. The results are indicative of genome-wide trends, and will provide the basis for the expansion of studies to include additional cell types, tissues, and organisms to define their regulatory networks.

The results and observations with respect to enhancers described herein lend themselves to application to various novel methods of monitoring and analysis in connection with the genome.

One aspect of the present invention is a method for identifying enhancer elements by analyzing portions of the genome for chromatin signatures found to be particularly associated with enhancers. Particular characteristics of the signatures associated with enhancers have been found to be enrichment in histone H3 lysine 4 monomethylation (H3K4Me1) and histone H3 lysine 27 acetylation (H3K27Ac). Other characteristics are enrichment in HS sites and overlap with transcription-factor binding sites, most particularly p300 binding sites. The analysis methods for enhancer-element identification employ, inter alia, ChIP-chip and ChIP-Seq analyses; antibodies against the desired transcription factors and modified histones; and digestion with DNase I.

In a further embodiment of the invention, the identification of enhancer elements provides for the analysis of the distribution of enhancers using computational clustering analysis. This enables the identification of differentially expressed and differentially unexpressed genes. This is a particularly powerful tool given our discovery that the effect of multiple enhancers is synergistic.

Not only have we discovered that enhancer signatures have features in common that enable the distinguishing of enhancers from promoters and other regulatory elements, but we have also discovered, as described above, that the enhancer signatures differ from each other on a cell-type specific basis within a given organism. Furthermore, again, we have demonstrated a correlation between differential gene expression and changes in enhancer numbers.

Accordingly, another aspect of the invention is the use of these tools in the diagnosis, prognosis and monitoring of disease, particularly cancer. However, the invention is by no means confined to methods useful in connection with cancer. Using techniques described herein, the characteristic enhancer signatures for both cancer cells and cells associated with other disease states can be identified. The diagnostic, prognostic and monitoring methods enabled by the disclosure herein involve analyzing chromatin samples from subjects for their signatures. This analysis is performed using the ChIP-chip analysis procedure described previously herein. Alternatively, the analysis can be performed using a ChIP-Seq procedure, whereby chromatin immunoprecipitation is combined with ultra high-throughput massive parallel sequencing. This procedure can be carried out as described by Jothi et al. [48] and Barski et al. [49]. Enhancer signatures are identified and further characterized by comparison with previously observed signatures known to be associated with particular cell types associated with disease states and the levels of gene expression in those cell types. The consequent identification of cell types and expression affords a basis for predicting disease states, diagnosing disease states and, in the latter case, monitoring the progress of the diseases and determining the appropriate parameters for treatment.

More particularly, one aspect of the invention is a diagnostic method for cancer and other diseases in a patient, comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) obtaining chromatin from a tissue, blood or plasma sample, or         from a cell line, from the patient;     -   b) determining the signatures present in the chromatin; and     -   c) in the case wherein the quantity of chromatin signatures at a         subset of enhancers associated with cancerous cells or with         cells that are known to be present in association with other         another disease state is above a set threshold, identifying the         patient as likely having the cancer or other disease state.

This diagnostic method may well also lend itself to further diagnostic/predictive studies. The methodology described can be employed to determine if there is a significant correlation between a quantity of cancer- or other-disease-associated enhancers below a set threshold and absence of the cancer or other disease in a patient and/or a correlation between such a threshold quantity and the diminished likelihood that the patient will get the cancer or other disease.

Another aspect of the invention is a prognostic method for cancer or another disease state in a patient known already to have such a condition, comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) obtaining chromatin from a tissue, blood or plasma sample, or         from a cell line, from the patient;     -   b) determining the quantity and distribution of enhancers in the         chromatin that are associated with the cancer or other         condition; and     -   c) using the results of the determination in step b) as a basis         for assessing the optimal treatment regimen for the patient, for         predicting the patient's response to the treatment and for         predicting the likelihood or duration of survival of the         patient.

Another aspect of the invention following from the prognostic method described immediately above is a method for monitoring the progress of treatment of a patient having cancer or another disease state, comprising the steps of:

-   -   a) obtaining, both before and after treatment, chromatin from a         tissue, blood or plasma sample, or from a cell line, from the         patient;     -   b) determining the change from before the treatment in quantity         and distribution of enhancers in the chromatin that are         associated with the cancer or other condition; and     -   c) using the results of the determination in step b) to 1)         assess the effectiveness of the treatment regimen; 2) assess the         need for any adjustments in said regimen; and 3) identify the         specifics of any such adjustments.

Yet another aspect of the invention is a method for the identification of differentially expressed and differentially repressed genes in a genome segment from a particular cell type of a host, which comprises employing the techniques described herein previously for finding enhancer elements in a genome segment, followed by the further steps of:

-   -   d) analyzing the distribution of the enhancers using         computational clustering analysis;     -   e) identifying those regions of the analyzed genome segment         having enrichment and clustering of enhancers as containing a         differentially expressed gene or genes; and     -   f) identifying those regions of the analyzed genome segment not         having such enrichment and clustering as containing a         differentially repressed gene or genes.     -   g)

TABLE 1 a. Gencode TSSs HeLa GM K562 ES dES HeLa 1.00 0.84 0.80 0.80 0.82 GM 1.00 0.79 0.79 0.76 K562 1.00 0.76 0.78 ES 1.00 0.82 dES 1.00 b. CTCF binding sites HeLa GM K562 ES dES IMR90 HeLa 1.00 0.87 0.79 0.65 0.76 0.61 GM 1.00 0.84 0.68 0.78 0.59 K562 1.00 0.65 0.76 0.60 ES 1.00 0.83 0.64 dES 1.00 0.72 IMR90 1.00 c. p300 binding sites HeLa GM K562 HeLa 1.00 −0.13 −0.12 GM 1.00 −0.08 K562 1.00 d. Enhancers HeLa GM K562 ES dES HeLa 1.00 0.10 0.07 0.14 0.26 GM 1.00 0.16 0.04 0.07 K562 1.00 0.04 0.19 ES 1.00 0.36 dES 1.00

TABLE 2 ENm001 115454022 chr7 ENm001 115465922 chr7 ENm001 115493622 chr7 ENm001 115505722 chr7 ENm001 115551122 chr7 ENm001 115564522 chr7 ENm001 115574822 chr7 ENm001 115589122 chr7 ENm001 115598122 chr7 ENm001 115629122 chr7 ENm001 115637722 chr7 ENm001 115658622 chr7 ENm001 115667722 chr7 ENm001 115675322 chr7 ENm001 115677122 chr7 ENm001 115689522 chr7 ENm001 115699722 chr7 ENm001 115711122 chr7 ENm001 115717522 chr7 ENm001 115724522 chr7 ENm001 115726122 chr7 ENm001 115746222 chr7 ENm001 115805022 chr7 ENm001 115811022 chr7 ENm001 115817022 chr7 ENm001 115849422 chr7 ENm001 115866022 chr7 ENm001 115887622 chr7 ENm001 115915022 chr7 ENm001 115922922 chr7 ENm001 115924822 chr7 ENm001 115935822 chr7 ENm001 115941222 chr7 ENm001 115950322 chr7 ENm001 116012922 chr7 ENm001 116032022 chr7 ENm001 116037822 chr7 ENm001 116044622 chr7 ENm001 116070422 chr7 ENm001 116106322 chr7 ENm001 116358022 chr7 ENm001 116359922 chr7 ENm001 116366122 chr7 ENm001 116392522 chr7 ENm001 116493822 chr7 ENm001 116503922 chr7 ENm001 116814822 chr7 ENm001 116822122 chr7 ENm001 116840822 chr7 ENm001 116854022 chr7 ENm001 116879722 chr7 ENm001 116900122 chr7 ENm001 116917522 chr7 ENm001 116938022 chr7 ENm001 117010122 chr7 ENm001 117232322 chr7 ENm002 131437364 chr5 ENm002 131450064 chr5 ENm002 131458364 chr5 ENm002 131467364 chr5 ENm002 131578864 chr5 ENm002 131589264 chr5 ENm002 131618364 chr5 ENm002 131624764 chr5 ENm002 131629264 chr5 ENm002 131637064 chr5 ENm002 131728564 chr5 ENm002 131751464 chr5 ENm002 131774264 chr5 ENm002 131776564 chr5 ENm002 131786464 chr5 ENm002 131809664 chr5 ENm002 131822964 chr5 ENm002 132040864 chr5 ENm003 115978066 chr11 ENm003 116333866 chr11 ENm003 116335766 chr11 ENm003 116360666 chr11 ENm003 116386866 chr11 ENm003 116402766 chr11 ENm003 116413966 chr11 ENm003 116421266 chr11 ENm003 116439966 chr11 ENm003 116447866 chr11 ENm004 30349858 chr22 ENm004 30367558 chr22 ENm004 30550558 chr22 ENm004 30671758 chr22 ENm004 30673558 chr22 ENm004 31253158 chr22 ENm004 31260158 chr22 ENm004 31277358 chr22 ENm004 31290958 chr22 ENm004 31304958 chr22 ENm004 31312458 chr22 ENm004 31337458 chr22 ENm004 31343758 chr22 ENm004 31370458 chr22 ENm004 31396758 chr22 ENm004 31404558 chr22 ENm004 31416858 chr22 ENm004 31481958 chr22 ENm004 31524658 chr22 ENm004 31531258 chr22 ENm004 31716658 chr22 ENm005 32675687 chr21 ENm005 32681087 chr21 ENm005 32736887 chr21 ENm005 32744887 chr21 ENm005 32751387 chr21 ENm005 32758387 chr21 ENm005 32769487 chr21 ENm005 32789487 chr21 ENm005 32810387 chr21 ENm005 32817387 chr21 ENm005 32918887 chr21 ENm005 33102987 chr21 ENm005 33138487 chr21 ENm005 33497487 chr21 ENm005 33581387 chr21 ENm005 33676387 chr21 ENm005 33690187 chr21 ENm005 33699487 chr21 ENm005 33713487 chr21 ENm005 33848087 chr21 ENm005 33952087 chr21 ENm005 33979387 chr21 ENm005 34055187 chr21 ENm005 34094387 chr21 ENm005 34219187 chr21 ENm005 34230787 chr21 ENm005 34242187 chr21 ENm005 34264087 chr21 ENm005 34270287 chr21 ENm006 152669595 chrX ENm006 152679995 chrX ENm006 152688795 chrX ENm006 152828995 chrX ENm006 152861795 chrX ENm006 152868795 chrX ENm006 152881795 chrX ENm006 153074095 chrX ENm006 153179095 chrX ENm006 153237795 chrX ENm006 153332495 chrX ENm006 153388495 chrX ENm006 153390395 chrX ENm006 153392895 chrX ENm006 153395995 chrX ENm006 153522195 chrX ENm006 153591495 chrX ENm006 153597595 chrX ENm006 153680095 chrX ENm007 59037735 chr19 ENm007 59054035 chr19 ENm007 59175035 chr19 ENm007 59185135 chr19 ENm007 59197535 chr19 ENm007 59214435 chr19 ENm007 59404135 chr19 ENm007 59634435 chr19 ENm008 66451 chr16 ENm008 103851 chr16 ENm008 258151 chr16 ENm008 317551 chr16 ENm008 340651 chr16 ENm009 5258246 chr11 ENm009 5321746 chr11 ENm009 5345246 chr11 ENm009 5583846 chr11 ENm009 5715146 chr11 ENm010 26878511 chr7 ENm010 26885311 chr7 ENm010 26894111 chr7 ENm010 26911111 chr7 ENm010 26948511 chr7 ENm010 26990311 chr7 ENm010 27007011 chr7 ENm010 27159511 chr7 ENm011 1728342 chr11 ENm011 1739342 chr11 ENm011 1751042 chr11 ENm011 1760642 chr11 ENm011 1806242 chr11 ENm011 1812142 chr11 ENm011 1822842 chr11 ENm011 1841242 chr11 ENm011 2156942 chr11 ENm012 113701534 chr7 ENm012 113716534 chr7 ENm012 113737434 chr7 ENm012 113739234 chr7 ENm012 113762734 chr7 ENm012 113766234 chr7 ENm012 113769134 chr7 ENm012 113789534 chr7 ENm012 113808734 chr7 ENm012 113818034 chr7 ENm012 113894534 chr7 ENm012 113994134 chr7 ENm012 114024234 chr7 ENm012 114054734 chr7 ENm012 114086434 chr7 ENm012 114098734 chr7 ENm012 114164934 chr7 ENm012 114178734 chr7 ENm012 114213834 chr7 ENm012 114222034 chr7 ENm012 114243734 chr7 ENm012 114321934 chr7 ENm012 114331534 chr7 ENm012 114370334 chr7 ENm012 114465034 chr7 ENm013 89453190 chr7 ENm013 89485890 chr7 ENm013 89748290 chr7 ENm013 89804390 chr7 ENm013 89853390 chr7 ENm013 89881290 chr7 ENm013 89899090 chr7 ENm013 90090790 chr7 ENm013 90098890 chr7 ENm013 90439190 chr7 ENm013 90457190 chr7 ENm013 90515690 chr7 ENm013 90523790 chr7 ENm014 125729357 chr7 ENm014 125808657 chr7 ENm014 125922957 chr7 ENm014 125934757 chr7 ENm014 126051957 chr7 ENm014 126058457 chr7 ENm014 126116357 chr7 ENm014 126121857 chr7 ENm014 126171357 chr7 ENm014 126222257 chr7 ENm014 126671857 chr7 ENr111 29585766 chr13 ENr111 29598066 chr13 ENr111 29615266 chr13 ENr111 29773466 chr13 ENr111 29785366 chr13 ENr111 29803766 chr13 ENr111 29810566 chr13 ENr111 29812666 chr13 ENr111 29844166 chr13 ENr111 29881266 chr13 ENr111 29902866 chr13 ENr112 51897506 chr2 ENr112 51922206 chr2 ENr112 51951606 chr2 ENr112 52057306 chr2 ENr113 118678709 chr4 ENr113 118734009 chr4 ENr113 119004609 chr4 ENr113 119056809 chr4 ENr121 118454354 chr2 ENr122 59459451 chr18 ENr122 59477151 chr18 ENr122 59501151 chr18 ENr122 59544751 chr18 ENr122 59556151 chr18 ENr122 59593551 chr18 ENr122 59637351 chr18 ENr122 59685951 chr18 ENr122 59700751 chr18 ENr123 38655227 chr12 ENr123 38666827 chr12 ENr123 38691327 chr12 ENr123 38734027 chr12 ENr123 38736327 chr12 ENr123 38783727 chr12 ENr123 38828527 chr12 ENr123 38889327 chr12 ENr123 38906127 chr12 ENr123 38975027 chr12 ENr123 39006027 chr12 ENr131 234372075 chr2 ENr131 234381275 chr2 ENr131 234390375 chr2 ENr131 234398375 chr2 ENr131 234436775 chr2 ENr131 234448075 chr2 ENr131 234454875 chr2 ENr131 234507975 chr2 ENr131 234523475 chr2 ENr131 234530675 chr2 ENr131 234665375 chr2 ENr131 234672475 chr2 ENr131 234694875 chr2 ENr132 112354915 chr13 ENr132 112414315 chr13 ENr132 112427415 chr13 ENr132 112575215 chr13 ENr132 112786815 chr13 ENr133 39252317 chr21 ENr133 39274517 chr21 ENr133 39280817 chr21 ENr133 39287317 chr21 ENr133 39300417 chr21 ENr133 39309117 chr21 ENr133 39315817 chr21 ENr133 39341517 chr21 ENr133 39388817 chr21 ENr133 39408917 chr21 ENr133 39419617 chr21 ENr133 39431917 chr21 ENr133 39469317 chr21 ENr212 141959801 chr5 ENr212 142004601 chr5 ENr212 142058001 chr5 ENr212 142170401 chr5 ENr212 142177101 chr5 ENr212 142180301 chr5 ENr212 142185001 chr5 ENr212 142186801 chr5 ENr212 142188801 chr5 ENr212 142190701 chr5 ENr212 142199801 chr5 ENr212 142217801 chr5 ENr212 142234501 chr5 ENr212 142242801 chr5 ENr212 142285501 chr5 ENr212 142340901 chr5 ENr212 142362501 chr5 ENr212 142369601 chr5 ENr213 23755982 chr18 ENr213 23798982 chr18 ENr213 23830682 chr18 ENr213 23865682 chr18 ENr213 23873782 chr18 ENr213 23898282 chr18 ENr213 23910082 chr18 ENr213 23921482 chr18 ENr213 23943782 chr18 ENr213 23945882 chr18 ENr213 23947582 chr18 ENr213 23949582 chr18 ENr213 23958482 chr18 ENr213 23962082 chr18 ENr213 23994782 chr18 ENr213 23996582 chr18 ENr213 24005182 chr18 ENr213 24017382 chr18 ENr213 24038182 chr18 ENr221 55901357 chr5 ENr221 55939557 chr5 ENr221 55947757 chr5 ENr221 55955757 chr5 ENr221 55969357 chr5 ENr221 55981457 chr5 ENr221 56029757 chr5 ENr221 56048657 chr5 ENr221 56065557 chr5 ENr221 56336657 chr5 ENr221 56363157 chr5 ENr222 132226090 chr6 ENr222 132300690 chr6 ENr222 132315890 chr6 ENr222 132317590 chr6 ENr222 132343890 chr6 ENr222 132416990 chr6 ENr222 132426790 chr6 ENr222 132448190 chr6 ENr222 132485990 chr6 ENr222 132494990 chr6 ENr222 132553290 chr6 ENr222 132562090 chr6 ENr222 132599190 chr6 ENr222 132633790 chr6 ENr222 132696890 chr6 ENr223 73798003 chr6 ENr223 73829203 chr6 ENr223 73846303 chr6 ENr231 148098184 chr1 ENr231 148156884 chr1 ENr231 148280784 chr1 ENr231 148298284 chr1 ENr231 148321484 chr1 ENr231 148334484 chr1 ENr231 148354884 chr1 ENr231 148360684 chr1 ENr231 148382384 chr1 ENr232 128982106 chr9 ENr232 128984206 chr9 ENr232 129009706 chr9 ENr232 129079106 chr9 ENr232 129100406 chr9 ENr232 129120506 chr9 ENr232 129177106 chr9 ENr232 129194206 chr9 ENr232 129249006 chr9 ENr232 129255506 chr9 ENr233 41588939 chr15 ENr233 41595439 chr15 ENr233 41682039 chr15 ENr233 41801939 chr15 ENr233 41992139 chr15 ENr311 52994826 chr14 ENr311 53078726 chr14 ENr311 53144926 chr14 ENr311 53252126 chr14 ENr311 53278826 chr14 ENr311 53327526 chr14 ENr311 53330026 chr14 ENr311 53344026 chr14 ENr311 53378926 chr14 ENr311 53388026 chr14 ENr311 53417526 chr14 ENr311 53430726 chr14 ENr312 130798248 chr11 ENr312 130805648 chr11 ENr321 118913771 chr8 ENr321 118929271 chr8 ENr321 118944071 chr8 ENr321 119018971 chr8 ENr321 119029471 chr8 ENr321 119057371 chr8 ENr321 119059771 chr8 ENr321 119081271 chr8 ENr321 119091871 chr8 ENr321 119099671 chr8 ENr321 119107171 chr8 ENr321 119113271 chr8 ENr321 119130171 chr8 ENr321 119160871 chr8 ENr321 119169071 chr8 ENr321 119175271 chr8 ENr321 119181071 chr8 ENr321 119291271 chr8 ENr322 98489974 chr14 ENr322 98491674 chr14 ENr322 98572474 chr14 ENr322 98635574 chr14 ENr322 98789374 chr14 ENr322 98808674 chr14 ENr322 98915974 chr14 ENr322 98917974 chr14 ENr323 108546047 chr6 ENr323 108561947 chr6 ENr324 122662300 chrX ENr324 122684300 chrX ENr324 122690100 chrX ENr324 122728600 chrX ENr324 122765000 chrX ENr324 122782500 chrX ENr324 122830700 chrX ENr324 122838400 chrX ENr324 122840300 chrX ENr331 220132001 chr2 ENr331 220136601 chr2 ENr331 220143701 chr2 ENr331 220151001 chr2 ENr331 220201201 chr2 ENr331 220211601 chr2 ENr331 220335901 chr2 ENr331 220376101 chr2 ENr331 220379401 chr2 ENr331 220397601 chr2 ENr331 220419301 chr2 ENr332 63972739 chr11 ENr332 64090939 chr11 ENr332 64199539 chr11 ENr332 64367539 chr11 ENr332 64379839 chr11 ENr332 64393639 chr11 ENr333 33315479 chr20 ENr333 33357079 chr20 ENr333 33363379 chr20 ENr333 33370179 chr20 ENr333 33378779 chr20 ENr333 33408679 chr20 ENr333 33438779 chr20 ENr333 33518979 chr20 ENr333 33669179 chr20 ENr333 33784179 chr20 ENr334 41505745 chr6 ENr334 41520245 chr6 ENr334 41540745 chr6 ENr334 41547545 chr6 ENr334 41565045 chr6 ENr334 41579445 chr6 ENr334 41581145 chr6 ENr334 41607245 chr6 ENr334 41654545 chr6 ENr334 41701445 chr6 ENr334 41774545 chr6 ENr334 41781945 chr6 ENr334 41788545 chr6 ENr334 41790845 chr6 ENr334 41799145 chr6 ENr334 41807745 chr6 ENr334 41843245 chr6

TABLE 3 ENr122 59421751 chr18 ENr122 59649551 chr18 ENr122 59699651 chr18 ENr122 59706351 chr18 ENr122 59713651 chr18 ENr122 59726051 chr18 ENr122 59794451 chr18 ENr122 59799351 chr18 ENr122 59846351 chr18 ENr211 25817078 chr16 ENr211 25885678 chr16 ENr211 25887378 chr16 ENr132 112413315 chr13 ENr132 112427415 chr13 ENr132 112436215 chr13 ENr132 112470615 chr13 ENr132 112482915 chr13 ENr132 112506015 chr13 ENr132 112530615 chr13 ENr132 112552515 chr13 ENr132 112575315 chr13 ENr334 41419845 chr6 ENr334 41516345 chr6 ENr334 41550145 chr6 ENr334 41563645 chr6 ENr334 41570345 chr6 ENr334 41607545 chr6 ENr334 41614345 chr6 ENr334 41791045 chr6 ENm002 131383464 chr5 ENm002 131465864 chr5 ENm002 131542764 chr5 ENm002 131567564 chr5 ENm002 131632764 chr5 ENm002 131722264 chr5 ENm002 131751064 chr5 ENm002 131758564 chr5 ENm002 131784464 chr5 ENm002 131792764 chr5 ENm002 131801264 chr5 ENm002 131809064 chr5 ENm002 131820964 chr5 ENm002 131830064 chr5 ENm002 131836264 chr5 ENm002 131842964 chr5 ENm002 131889764 chr5 ENm002 131929564 chr5 ENm002 131993564 chr5 ENm002 132004864 chr5 ENm002 132025164 chr5 ENm002 132026964 chr5 ENm002 132037864 chr5 ENm002 132052364 chr5 ENm002 132115364 chr5 ENm002 132148964 chr5 ENm010 26844711 chr7 ENm010 26896711 chr7 ENm010 26947411 chr7 ENr223 73846303 chr6 ENr223 73853403 chr6 ENr223 73890503 chr6 ENr223 73912303 chr6 ENr223 73943703 chr6 ENr223 74095703 chr6 ENr223 74237603 chr6 ENr223 74276203 chr6 ENm009 5255746 chr11 ENm009 5321746 chr11 ENm009 5346046 chr11 ENm009 5527246 chr11 ENm009 5609946 chr11 ENm009 5685246 chr11 ENr331 220332901 chr2 ENr331 220353101 chr2 ENr331 220376001 chr2 ENr331 220535401 chr2 ENr331 220591901 chr2 ENr322 98822974 chr14 ENr322 98926174 chr14 ENr322 98948774 chr14 ENr133 39273617 chr21 ENr133 39279317 chr21 ENr133 39483317 chr21 ENr133 39560017 chr21 ENr133 39668317 chr21 ENr131 234283575 chr2 ENr131 234346575 chr2 ENm004 30167058 chr22 ENm004 30172058 chr22 ENm004 30198358 chr22 ENm004 30241158 chr22 ENm004 30257058 chr22 ENm004 30270658 chr22 ENm004 30276758 chr22 ENm004 30301758 chr22 ENm004 30307358 chr22 ENm004 30336758 chr22 ENm004 30367858 chr22 ENm004 30373258 chr22 ENm004 30455158 chr22 ENm004 30489658 chr22 ENm004 30510958 chr22 ENm004 30550058 chr22 ENm004 30567058 chr22 ENm004 30637958 chr22 ENm004 30644358 chr22 ENm004 30672458 chr22 ENm004 30771658 chr22 ENm004 30861458 chr22 ENm004 30870758 chr22 ENm004 31138558 chr22 ENm004 31201958 chr22 ENm004 31351558 chr22 ENm013 89453490 chr7 ENm013 89513690 chr7 ENm013 89699390 chr7 ENm013 89807690 chr7 ENm013 89879090 chr7 ENm013 89886390 chr7 ENm013 89895490 chr7 ENm013 89929690 chr7 ENm013 89935890 chr7 ENm013 89943590 chr7 ENm013 89975090 chr7 ENm013 89989690 chr7 ENm013 90000290 chr7 ENm013 90011590 chr7 ENm013 90031290 chr7 ENm013 90038990 chr7 ENm013 90048090 chr7 ENm013 90090890 chr7 ENm013 90127190 chr7 ENm013 90131990 chr7 ENm013 90166190 chr7 ENm013 90206090 chr7 ENm013 90439090 chr7 ENr312 131020548 chr11 ENr312 131031948 chr11 ENr212 142160701 chr5 ENr212 142167801 chr5 ENr212 142205001 chr5 ENr212 142284701 chr5 ENr212 142319801 chr5 ENr212 142331501 chr5 ENr212 142363501 chr5 ENr212 142369201 chr5 ENr323 108419447 chr6 ENr323 108631647 chr6 ENr323 108679547 chr6 ENr323 108712447 chr6 ENr323 108769547 chr6 ENr323 108776647 chr6 ENm012 113648834 chr7 ENm012 113789534 chr7 ENm012 113864634 chr7 ENm012 113895434 chr7 ENm012 113934534 chr7 ENm012 113955534 chr7 ENm012 113992434 chr7 ENm012 114035534 chr7 ENm012 114068734 chr7 ENm012 114099534 chr7 ENm012 114151534 chr7 ENm012 114169134 chr7 ENm012 114175234 chr7 ENm012 114182434 chr7 ENm012 114191934 chr7 ENm012 114193834 chr7 ENm012 114205434 chr7 ENm012 114214534 chr7 ENm012 114242634 chr7 ENm012 114300134 chr7 ENm012 114370634 chr7 ENr233 41718139 chr15 ENr233 41814739 chr15 ENr233 41888839 chr15 ENm006 152665295 chrX ENm006 152687995 chrX ENm006 152770695 chrX ENm006 152827495 chrX ENm006 152870795 chrX ENm006 153061695 chrX ENm006 153070795 chrX ENm006 153083395 chrX ENm006 153168495 chrX ENm006 153318895 chrX ENm006 153504795 chrX ENm006 153510995 chrX ENm006 153526195 chrX ENm006 153575495 chrX ENm006 153588595 chrX ENm006 153614695 chrX ENm006 153620195 chrX ENm006 153694495 chrX ENm006 153784595 chrX ENm006 153844795 chrX ENr213 23866782 chr18 ENr213 23868382 chr18 ENr213 23897982 chr18 ENr213 23905482 chr18 ENr213 23913082 chr18 ENr213 23919882 chr18 ENr213 23928882 chr18 ENr213 23958682 chr18 ENr213 23965182 chr18 ENr213 23969582 chr18 ENr213 23987782 chr18 ENr213 23995682 chr18 ENr213 24003082 chr18 ENm008 14951 chr16 ENm008 25451 chr16 ENm008 28151 chr16 ENm008 74651 chr16 ENm008 231451 chr16 ENm008 315151 chr16 ENm008 432651 chr16 ENm008 443651 chr16 ENr222 132447790 chr6 ENr222 132631790 chr6 ENr321 118962971 chr8 ENr321 118976971 chr8 ENr321 118988071 chr8 ENr321 118998971 chr8 ENr321 119002871 chr8 ENr321 119018671 chr8 ENr321 119038371 chr8 ENr321 119052171 chr8 ENr321 119060871 chr8 ENr321 119070671 chr8 ENr321 119080871 chr8 ENr321 119087371 chr8 ENr321 119101071 chr8 ENr321 119118571 chr8 ENr321 119142271 chr8 ENr321 119150071 chr8 ENr321 119171171 chr8 ENr321 119181271 chr8 ENr321 119277471 chr8 ENr321 119340371 chr8 ENr321 119362571 chr8 ENm005 32945087 chr21 ENm005 33006187 chr21 ENm005 33107887 chr21 ENm005 33209187 chr21 ENm005 33226387 chr21 ENm005 33373187 chr21 ENm005 33498487 chr21 ENm005 33508087 chr21 ENm005 33509687 chr21 ENm005 33532587 chr21 ENm005 33590287 chr21 ENm005 33594287 chr21 ENm005 33603287 chr21 ENm005 33633787 chr21 ENm005 33655087 chr21 ENm005 33668987 chr21 ENm005 33675887 chr21 ENm005 33688987 chr21 ENm005 33706987 chr21 ENm005 33727287 chr21 ENm005 33737987 chr21 ENm005 33980087 chr21 ENm005 34029587 chr21 ENm005 34226487 chr21 ENm005 34242487 chr21 ENm005 34244287 chr21 ENm005 34263287 chr21 ENm005 34269687 chr21 ENm005 34278287 chr21 ENm005 34314087 chr21 ENm005 34325487 chr21 ENm005 34340987 chr21 ENr311 53052926 chr14 ENr311 53069526 chr14 ENr311 53081826 chr14 ENr311 53107926 chr14 ENr311 53144226 chr14 ENr311 53150026 chr14 ENr311 53157326 chr14 ENr311 53191626 chr14 ENr311 53234026 chr14 ENr311 53236226 chr14 ENr311 53377626 chr14 ENr311 53417526 chr14 ENr311 53426126 chr14 ENr311 53427826 chr14 ENr311 53431126 chr14 ENr111 29592766 chr13 ENr111 29614066 chr13 ENr111 29619466 chr13 ENr111 29628866 chr13 ENr111 29630666 chr13 ENr111 29649966 chr13 ENr111 29665766 chr13 ENr111 29713666 chr13 ENr111 29729666 chr13 ENr111 29786466 chr13 ENr111 29805366 chr13 ENr111 29819266 chr13 ENr111 29843466 chr13 ENr111 29880466 chr13 ENr111 29903566 chr13 ENr231 148023084 chr1 ENr231 148224284 chr1 ENr231 148230384 chr1 ENr231 148251184 chr1 ENr231 148259084 chr1 ENr231 148260784 chr1 ENr231 148280184 chr1 ENr231 148289284 chr1 ENr231 148360784 chr1 ENr231 148405484 chr1 ENm011 1822742 chr11 ENr123 38817927 chr12 ENr123 38838527 chr12 ENr123 38849827 chr12 ENr123 38876127 chr12 ENr123 38889227 chr12 ENr123 38912127 chr12 ENr123 38928527 chr12 ENr123 38942927 chr12 ENr123 38994727 chr12 ENr333 33364179 chr20 ENr333 33553779 chr20 ENr333 33557079 chr20 ENr333 33658179 chr20 ENr333 33663279 chr20 ENr333 33764079 chr20 ENr333 33785479 chr20 ENr232 128863306 chr9 ENr232 128973306 chr9 ENr232 128983606 chr9 ENr232 128990806 chr9 ENr232 129027406 chr9 ENr232 129063506 chr9 ENr232 129112606 chr9 ENm003 116109866 chr11 ENm003 116228966 chr11 ENm003 116303966 chr11 ENm003 116306066 chr11 ENm003 116362866 chr11 ENm003 116382266 chr11 ENm003 116396866 chr11 ENm003 116399766 chr11 ENm003 116414966 chr11 ENm003 116420466 chr11 ENm003 116439166 chr11 ENm003 116450466 chr11 ENm003 116452766 chr11 ENr332 63972739 chr11 ENr332 64198139 chr11 ENr332 64239139 chr11 ENr332 64288339 chr11 ENr332 64296039 chr11 ENr332 64376639 chr11 ENr332 64383339 chr11 ENr332 64387039 chr11 ENr332 64393439 chr11 ENr332 64411939 chr11 ENr221 55920757 chr5 ENr221 55971557 chr5 ENr221 55990857 chr5 ENr221 56001757 chr5 ENr221 56008357 chr5 ENr221 56017757 chr5 ENr221 56024057 chr5 ENr221 56068157 chr5 ENr221 56095357 chr5 ENr221 56161657 chr5 ENr221 56170657 chr5 ENr221 56184157 chr5 ENr221 56317257 chr5 ENr221 56362457 chr5 ENm014 125681057 chr7 ENm014 125682657 chr7 ENm014 125803457 chr7 ENm014 125892857 chr7 ENm014 125935357 chr7 ENm014 125953557 chr7 ENm014 126183357 chr7 ENm014 126598857 chr7 ENm014 126616857 chr7 ENm014 126638357 chr7 ENm014 126648357 chr7 ENm001 115452922 chr7 ENm001 115456522 chr7 ENm001 115464822 chr7 ENm001 115495822 chr7 ENm001 115550722 chr7 ENm001 115746122 chr7 ENm001 115776822 chr7 ENm001 115782422 chr7 ENm001 115808522 chr7 ENm001 115817522 chr7 ENm001 115866322 chr7 ENm001 116106622 chr7 ENm001 116198022 chr7 ENm001 116213022 chr7 ENm001 116220822 chr7 ENm001 116244322 chr7 ENm001 116257922 chr7 ENm001 116274722 chr7 ENm001 116280822 chr7 ENm001 116303022 chr7 ENm001 116321122 chr7 ENm001 116329922 chr7 ENm001 116345022 chr7 ENm001 116358622 chr7 ENm001 116449322 chr7 ENm001 116464522 chr7 ENm001 116474922 chr7 ENm001 116484622 chr7 ENm001 116493522 chr7 ENm001 116504222 chr7 ENm001 116657922 chr7 ENm001 116669222 chr7 ENm001 116797922 chr7 ENm001 116822622 chr7 ENm001 116864522 chr7 ENm001 116964922 chr7 ENm001 117008922 chr7 ENm001 117016722 chr7 ENm001 117026022 chr7 ENm001 117274122 chr7 ENm007 59047935 chr19 ENm007 59404935 chr19 ENm007 59467735 chr19 ENm007 59484935 chr19 ENm007 59548935 chr19 ENm007 59565235 chr19 ENm007 59574135 chr19 ENm007 59578735 chr19 ENm007 59592135 chr19 ENm007 59694135 chr19 ENm007 59701435 chr19 ENm007 59710335 chr19 ENm007 59723035 chr19 ENm007 59724835 chr19 ENm007 59735835 chr19 ENm007 59754435 chr19 ENm007 59776635 chr19 ENm007 59797035 chr19 ENm007 59810035 chr19 ENm007 59828635 chr19 ENm007 59835735 chr19 ENm007 59858035 chr19 ENm007 59864935 chr19 ENr324 122631600 chrX ENr324 122645400 chrX ENr324 122659200 chrX ENr324 122674100 chrX ENr324 122690100 chrX ENr324 122729800 chrX ENr324 122731500 chrX ENr324 122738000 chrX ENr324 122830200 chrX ENr324 122832300 chrX ENr324 122838600 chrX ENr324 122844500 chrX ENr324 122850300 chrX ENr324 122868600 chrX ENr324 122889100 chrX ENr324 122923500 chrX

TABLE 4 ENm001 115465022 chr7 ENm001 115588922 chr7 ENm001 115652722 chr7 ENm001 115673322 chr7 ENm001 115699922 chr7 ENm001 115725522 chr7 ENm001 115746422 chr7 ENm001 116104822 chr7 ENm001 116111522 chr7 ENm001 116205822 chr7 ENm001 116212422 chr7 ENm001 116244422 chr7 ENm001 116255422 chr7 ENm001 116260322 chr7 ENm001 116268922 chr7 ENm001 116280322 chr7 ENm001 116286822 chr7 ENm001 116321122 chr7 ENm001 116347022 chr7 ENm001 116443622 chr7 ENm001 116464222 chr7 ENm001 116514222 chr7 ENm001 117007922 chr7 ENm001 117026122 chr7 ENm002 131358964 chr5 ENm002 131434664 chr5 ENm002 131450064 chr5 ENm002 131462064 chr5 ENm002 131467264 chr5 ENm002 131478364 chr5 ENm002 131542464 chr5 ENm002 131623964 chr5 ENm002 131627664 chr5 ENm002 131637364 chr5 ENm002 131642564 chr5 ENm002 131665464 chr5 ENm002 131671664 chr5 ENm002 131681064 chr5 ENm002 131687164 chr5 ENm002 131707964 chr5 ENm002 131751164 chr5 ENm002 131785964 chr5 ENm002 131788164 chr5 ENm002 131801064 chr5 ENm002 131822764 chr5 ENm002 131830464 chr5 ENm002 131890564 chr5 ENm002 132026864 chr5 ENm002 132029264 chr5 ENm002 132037364 chr5 ENm002 132049364 chr5 ENm002 132052664 chr5 ENm002 132137864 chr5 ENm002 132150464 chr5 ENm002 132152764 chr5 ENm002 132155064 chr5 ENm002 132171464 chr5 ENm002 132184064 chr5 ENm002 132236364 chr5 ENm003 116202466 chr11 ENm003 116228866 chr11 ENm003 116236866 chr11 ENm003 116307066 chr11 ENm003 116334066 chr11 ENm003 116346366 chr11 ENm003 116379466 chr11 ENm003 116386666 chr11 ENm003 116396566 chr11 ENm003 116398566 chr11 ENm003 116413766 chr11 ENm003 116447466 chr11 ENm004 30257158 chr22 ENm004 30323558 chr22 ENm004 30346558 chr22 ENm004 30348958 chr22 ENm004 30373358 chr22 ENm004 30391758 chr22 ENm004 30485658 chr22 ENm004 30495758 chr22 ENm004 30517958 chr22 ENm004 30550558 chr22 ENm004 30577858 chr22 ENm004 30588158 chr22 ENm004 30596958 chr22 ENm004 30602658 chr22 ENm004 30611158 chr22 ENm004 30615458 chr22 ENm004 30623058 chr22 ENm004 30631558 chr22 ENm004 30635658 chr22 ENm004 30643758 chr22 ENm004 30649658 chr22 ENm004 30657658 chr22 ENm004 30672258 chr22 ENm004 30771058 chr22 ENm004 31202158 chr22 ENm004 31253158 chr22 ENm004 31260358 chr22 ENm004 31267058 chr22 ENm004 31277458 chr22 ENm004 31291458 chr22 ENm004 31295258 chr22 ENm004 31307558 chr22 ENm004 31343058 chr22 ENm004 31349858 chr22 ENm004 31371358 chr22 ENm004 31561858 chr22 ENm004 31573358 chr22 ENm004 31594958 chr22 ENm004 31602258 chr22 ENm004 31631758 chr22 ENm005 32722287 chr21 ENm005 32810387 chr21 ENm005 32818187 chr21 ENm005 32840487 chr21 ENm005 32849787 chr21 ENm005 32881287 chr21 ENm005 33004787 chr21 ENm005 33497887 chr21 ENm005 33509787 chr21 ENm005 33525987 chr21 ENm005 33543487 chr21 ENm005 33577187 chr21 ENm005 33595487 chr21 ENm005 33599087 chr21 ENm005 33677487 chr21 ENm005 33699787 chr21 ENm005 33729187 chr21 ENm005 33805687 chr21 ENm005 33911887 chr21 ENm005 33950987 chr21 ENm005 34055587 chr21 ENm005 34111887 chr21 ENm005 34190487 chr21 ENm005 34196387 chr21 ENm005 34218187 chr21 ENm005 34241887 chr21 ENm005 34261787 chr21 ENm005 34269087 chr21 ENm005 34281887 chr21 ENm005 34287587 chr21 ENm005 34293387 chr21 ENm005 34301287 chr21 ENm005 34318287 chr21 ENm005 34325787 chr21 ENm006 152687895 chrX ENm006 152727595 chrX ENm006 152771595 chrX ENm006 152869195 chrX ENm006 152878195 chrX ENm006 152880295 chrX ENm006 152908795 chrX ENm006 152940095 chrX ENm006 152951295 chrX ENm006 152960295 chrX ENm006 152977195 chrX ENm006 152988295 chrX ENm006 152997495 chrX ENm006 153014095 chrX ENm006 153025295 chrX ENm006 153035295 chrX ENm006 153179495 chrX ENm006 153275795 chrX ENm006 153333895 chrX ENm006 153510095 chrX ENm006 153522995 chrX ENm006 153526695 chrX ENm006 153529495 chrX ENm006 153544595 chrX ENm006 153552295 chrX ENm006 153577495 chrX ENm006 153583895 chrX ENm006 153585595 chrX ENm006 153614695 chrX ENm006 153621295 chrX ENm006 153627795 chrX ENm006 153629995 chrX ENm006 153790795 chrX ENm006 153798195 chrX ENm006 153814295 chrX ENm006 153839595 chrX ENm006 153879495 chrX ENm006 153939795 chrX ENm007 59038335 chr19 ENm007 59084035 chr19 ENm007 59405735 chr19 ENm007 59419635 chr19 ENm007 59438935 chr19 ENm007 59722935 chr19 ENm007 59776035 chr19 ENm007 59858135 chr19 ENm007 59898735 chr19 ENm008 66551 chr16 ENm008 95251 chr16 ENm008 103651 chr16 ENm008 109951 chr16 ENm008 112151 chr16 ENm008 125851 chr16 ENm008 133851 chr16 ENm008 230651 chr16 ENm008 314151 chr16 ENm008 325351 chr16 ENm008 340651 chr16 ENm008 446851 chr16 ENm009 4860146 chr11 ENm009 5110446 chr11 ENm009 5129746 chr11 ENm009 5174846 chr11 ENm009 5203746 chr11 ENm009 5212446 chr11 ENm009 5256646 chr11 ENm009 5263046 chr11 ENm009 5264746 chr11 ENm009 5266346 chr11 ENm009 5275846 chr11 ENm009 5313146 chr11 ENm009 5341446 chr11 ENm009 5467546 chr11 ENm009 5486946 chr11 ENm009 5508746 chr11 ENm009 5534946 chr11 ENm009 5558646 chr11 ENm009 5569846 chr11 ENm009 5575946 chr11 ENm009 5599646 chr11 ENm009 5643846 chr11 ENm009 5668546 chr11 ENm010 26838411 chr7 ENm010 27176511 chr7 ENm010 27185711 chr7 ENm011 1822642 chr11 ENm011 1956842 chr11 ENm011 1966142 chr11 ENm011 2264742 chr11 ENm011 2280842 chr11 ENm013 89513290 chr7 ENm013 89852890 chr7 ENm014 125936257 chr7 ENm014 126111957 chr7 ENm014 126598157 chr7 ENm014 126599857 chr7 ENm014 126607157 chr7 ENm014 126615557 chr7 ENr111 29585966 chr13 ENr111 29701266 chr13 ENr111 29744866 chr13 ENr111 29794366 chr13 ENr111 29812566 chr13 ENr111 29835566 chr13 ENr111 29867866 chr13 ENr111 29880966 chr13 ENr112 51800906 chr2 ENr121 118426154 chr2 ENr123 38779927 chr12 ENr131 234380275 chr2 ENr131 234389975 chr2 ENr131 234483175 chr2 ENr131 234531075 chr2 ENr132 112394915 chr13 ENr132 112405415 chr13 ENr132 112415515 chr13 ENr132 112431115 chr13 ENr132 112440115 chr13 ENr132 112443815 chr13 ENr132 112465015 chr13 ENr133 39251917 chr21 ENr133 39279717 chr21 ENr133 39298017 chr21 ENr133 39388817 chr21 ENr133 39399617 chr21 ENr133 39408117 chr21 ENr133 39502617 chr21 ENr133 39612417 chr21 ENr133 39625217 chr21 ENr133 39657917 chr21 ENr133 39716217 chr21 ENr133 39724417 chr21 ENr212 141891601 chr5 ENr212 141904901 chr5 ENr212 141958201 chr5 ENr212 142186101 chr5 ENr212 142197301 chr5 ENr212 142206301 chr5 ENr212 142212101 chr5 ENr221 55918057 chr5 ENr221 56019957 chr5 ENr221 56095257 chr5 ENr221 56158057 chr5 ENr221 56181157 chr5 ENr222 132703490 chr6 ENr223 74030903 chr6 ENr223 74051903 chr6 ENr223 74177803 chr6 ENr223 74188403 chr6 ENr223 74278003 chr6 ENr231 148097384 chr1 ENr231 148156184 chr1 ENr231 148158284 chr1 ENr231 148360784 chr1 ENr231 148370184 chr1 ENr231 148381984 chr1 ENr231 148405484 chr1 ENr231 148453184 chr1 ENr232 128784506 chr9 ENr232 128864506 chr9 ENr232 128870906 chr9 ENr232 128911506 chr9 ENr232 128983406 chr9 ENr232 129009406 chr9 ENr232 129026106 chr9 ENr232 129079306 chr9 ENr232 129088406 chr9 ENr232 129176506 chr9 ENr232 129243106 chr9 ENr232 129249206 chr9 ENr232 129255506 chr9 ENr232 129257306 chr9 ENr233 41595439 chr15 ENr233 41647839 chr15 ENr233 41736739 chr15 ENr233 41747339 chr15 ENr233 41893039 chr15 ENr233 41980039 chr15 ENr323 108394047 chr6 ENr323 108409747 chr6 ENr323 108411547 chr6 ENr323 108418847 chr6 ENr323 108430447 chr6 ENr323 108650947 chr6 ENr323 108657247 chr6 ENr323 108663547 chr6 ENr323 108680147 chr6 ENr323 108705447 chr6 ENr323 108789147 chr6 ENr324 122585300 chrX ENr324 122660300 chrX ENr324 122677100 chrX ENr324 122684500 chrX ENr324 122729100 chrX ENr324 122764700 chrX ENr324 122828800 chrX ENr324 122844300 chrX ENr324 122852400 chrX ENr324 122881500 chrX ENr324 122932200 chrX ENr331 220143501 chr2 ENr331 220151101 chr2 ENr331 220160401 chr2 ENr331 220166101 chr2 ENr331 220200401 chr2 ENr331 220202701 chr2 ENr331 220209201 chr2 ENr331 220216101 chr2 ENr331 220218001 chr2 ENr331 220267101 chr2 ENr331 220335501 chr2 ENr331 220354001 chr2 ENr331 220376001 chr2 ENr331 220414101 chr2 ENr332 64024839 chr11 ENr332 64079839 chr11 ENr332 64095939 chr11 ENr332 64182639 chr11 ENr332 64190039 chr11 ENr332 64235339 chr11 ENr332 64278439 chr11 ENr332 64284839 chr11 ENr332 64379739 chr11 ENr332 64394939 chr11 ENr332 64413039 chr11 ENr333 33322679 chr20 ENr333 33357279 chr20 ENr333 33363379 chr20 ENr333 33370279 chr20 ENr333 33379379 chr20 ENr333 33389679 chr20 ENr333 33395479 chr20 ENr333 33415279 chr20 ENr333 33490479 chr20 ENr333 33513679 chr20 ENr333 33565879 chr20 ENr333 33659279 chr20 ENr333 33692979 chr20 ENr333 33709579 chr20 ENr334 41614445 chr6 ENr334 41654345 chr6 ENr334 41823645 chr6 ENr334 41843945 chr6 ENr334 41894545 chr6

TABLE 5 ENm001 115465422 chr7 ENm001 115486622 chr7 ENm001 115756822 chr7 ENm001 115827322 chr7 ENm001 115849622 chr7 ENm001 115969722 chr7 ENm001 115971722 chr7 ENm001 116017122 chr7 ENm001 116036722 chr7 ENm001 116090422 chr7 ENm001 116138922 chr7 ENm001 116254822 chr7 ENm001 116352122 chr7 ENm001 116360022 chr7 ENm001 116374022 chr7 ENm001 116376022 chr7 ENm001 116383422 chr7 ENm001 116545622 chr7 ENm001 116720322 chr7 ENm001 116864922 chr7 ENm001 116886522 chr7 ENm001 116907622 chr7 ENm001 116910422 chr7 ENm001 117043022 chr7 ENm001 117069722 chr7 ENm001 117100822 chr7 ENm001 117122622 chr7 ENm001 117197322 chr7 ENm002 131338564 chr5 ENm002 131365964 chr5 ENm002 131642664 chr5 ENm002 131686664 chr5 ENm002 131751064 chr5 ENm002 131801464 chr5 ENm002 131809164 chr5 ENm002 131814764 chr5 ENm002 131820564 chr5 ENm002 131838364 chr5 ENm002 132118864 chr5 ENm002 132171364 chr5 ENm003 116063866 chr11 ENm003 116072166 chr11 ENm003 116079466 chr11 ENm003 116085266 chr11 ENm003 116091566 chr11 ENm003 116107566 chr11 ENm003 116307166 chr11 ENm003 116332866 chr11 ENm003 116345366 chr11 ENm003 116370366 chr11 ENm003 116412966 chr11 ENm003 116449066 chr11 ENm003 116453766 chr11 ENm004 30345858 chr22 ENm004 30368358 chr22 ENm004 30588058 chr22 ENm004 30673858 chr22 ENm004 30681258 chr22 ENm004 31046458 chr22 ENm004 31057458 chr22 ENm004 31289358 chr22 ENm004 31343558 chr22 ENm004 31485458 chr22 ENm004 31524758 chr22 ENm004 31535158 chr22 ENm004 31551258 chr22 ENm004 31707758 chr22 ENm004 31715158 chr22 ENm004 31740958 chr22 ENm004 31783758 chr22 ENm004 31814458 chr22 ENm005 32721987 chr21 ENm005 32772287 chr21 ENm005 32775787 chr21 ENm005 32788087 chr21 ENm005 32806087 chr21 ENm005 32817887 chr21 ENm005 32850087 chr21 ENm005 32899187 chr21 ENm005 33100787 chr21 ENm005 33247187 chr21 ENm005 33253887 chr21 ENm005 33259187 chr21 ENm005 33329687 chr21 ENm005 33405587 chr21 ENm005 33407387 chr21 ENm005 33410487 chr21 ENm005 33421487 chr21 ENm005 33439187 chr21 ENm005 33456887 chr21 ENm005 33707287 chr21 ENm005 33950887 chr21 ENm005 33962487 chr21 ENm005 33969187 chr21 ENm005 33978087 chr21 ENm005 33981287 chr21 ENm005 33990987 chr21 ENm005 34088287 chr21 ENm005 34153287 chr21 ENm005 34241787 chr21 ENm005 34269687 chr21 ENm005 34316687 chr21 ENm006 152649295 chrX ENm006 152664895 chrX ENm006 152727395 chrX ENm006 152820295 chrX ENm006 152821995 chrX ENm006 152827895 chrX ENm006 152837595 chrX ENm006 152878095 chrX ENm006 152960295 chrX ENm006 152983495 chrX ENm006 152997795 chrX ENm006 153020895 chrX ENm006 153035595 chrX ENm006 153684195 chrX ENm006 153839395 chrX ENm007 59037535 chr19 ENm007 59236635 chr19 ENm007 59470835 chr19 ENm007 59492935 chr19 ENm007 59528635 chr19 ENm007 59594535 chr19 ENm007 59639335 chr19 ENm007 59676535 chr19 ENm008 321251 chr16 ENm008 447651 chr16 ENm008 473551 chr16 ENm008 481451 chr16 ENm009 4840846 chr11 ENm009 5115546 chr11 ENm009 5430246 chr11 ENm009 5597546 chr11 ENm009 5668446 chr11 ENm010 26758211 chr7 ENm010 26843211 chr7 ENm010 26914311 chr7 ENm010 27157311 chr7 ENm010 27187811 chr7 ENm011 1750942 chr11 ENm011 1886442 chr11 ENm011 1982642 chr11 ENm012 113648834 chr7 ENm012 113864434 chr7 ENm012 113893234 chr7 ENm012 113923534 chr7 ENm012 113943634 chr7 ENm012 114056534 chr7 ENm012 114058634 chr7 ENm012 114077434 chr7 ENm012 114164634 chr7 ENm012 114179334 chr7 ENm012 114206534 chr7 ENm012 114220634 chr7 ENm012 114236934 chr7 ENm012 114242634 chr7 ENm012 114266434 chr7 ENm013 89498590 chr7 ENm013 89896790 chr7 ENm013 89935690 chr7 ENm013 89951690 chr7 ENm013 89983790 chr7 ENm013 89985590 chr7 ENm013 90000390 chr7 ENm013 90038590 chr7 ENm013 90166590 chr7 ENm013 90306590 chr7 ENm013 90317890 chr7 ENm013 90408590 chr7 ENm013 90487190 chr7 ENm014 125759157 chr7 ENm014 125935457 chr7 ENm014 126067457 chr7 ENm014 126116557 chr7 ENm014 126330357 chr7 ENm014 126348857 chr7 ENm014 126423557 chr7 ENm014 126449257 chr7 ENm014 126769957 chr7 ENr111 29430566 chr13 ENr111 29436966 chr13 ENr111 29492066 chr13 ENr111 29510466 chr13 ENr111 29524966 chr13 ENr111 29550666 chr13 ENr111 29586066 chr13 ENr111 29849366 chr13 ENr111 29867866 chr13 ENr111 29880966 chr13 ENr112 51736606 chr2 ENr112 51772306 chr2 ENr112 51800706 chr2 ENr113 118877609 chr4 ENr113 119004909 chr4 ENr114 55260469 chr10 ENr121 118026154 chr2 ENr121 118325054 chr2 ENr121 118494854 chr2 ENr122 59502551 chr18 ENr122 59836351 chr18 ENr122 59902051 chr18 ENr123 38701527 chr12 ENr123 38712827 chr12 ENr123 38835427 chr12 ENr131 234390475 chr2 ENr131 234608475 chr2 ENr131 234620175 chr2 ENr131 234665375 chr2 ENr132 112406515 chr13 ENr132 112415215 chr13 ENr132 112428615 chr13 ENr132 112437715 chr13 ENr132 112445415 chr13 ENr132 112483115 chr13 ENr132 112595115 chr13 ENr132 112604515 chr13 ENr132 112608115 chr13 ENr132 112725415 chr13 ENr133 39275117 chr21 ENr133 39282617 chr21 ENr133 39284817 chr21 ENr133 39316317 chr21 ENr133 39323317 chr21 ENr133 39376217 chr21 ENr133 39431717 chr21 ENr133 39724017 chr21 ENr211 25804378 chr16 ENr211 25806278 chr16 ENr211 25844478 chr16 ENr211 25870178 chr16 ENr211 25938978 chr16 ENr211 25969078 chr16 ENr211 25974778 chr16 ENr211 25990278 chr16 ENr211 26052278 chr16 ENr211 26096178 chr16 ENr211 26125178 chr16 ENr211 26138678 chr16 ENr211 26200778 chr16 ENr212 141900901 chr5 ENr212 141910401 chr5 ENr212 142034401 chr5 ENr212 142044501 chr5 ENr212 142077001 chr5 ENr212 142142901 chr5 ENr212 142157301 chr5 ENr212 142177301 chr5 ENr212 142186401 chr5 ENr212 142206301 chr5 ENr212 142208401 chr5 ENr212 142217101 chr5 ENr212 142223201 chr5 ENr212 142225001 chr5 ENr212 142232701 chr5 ENr212 142258701 chr5 ENr212 142342401 chr5 ENr213 23735682 chr18 ENr213 23819382 chr18 ENr213 23879982 chr18 ENr213 23882882 chr18 ENr213 23898482 chr18 ENr213 23908582 chr18 ENr213 23920882 chr18 ENr213 23944582 chr18 ENr213 23989082 chr18 ENr213 23994282 chr18 ENr221 55939657 chr5 ENr221 55947157 chr5 ENr221 55969057 chr5 ENr221 56001557 chr5 ENr221 56030657 chr5 ENr221 56046557 chr5 ENr221 56048657 chr5 ENr221 56066357 chr5 ENr221 56158357 chr5 ENr221 56162657 chr5 ENr222 132256790 chr6 ENr222 132263090 chr6 ENr222 132271090 chr6 ENr222 132300390 chr6 ENr222 132318190 chr6 ENr222 132451590 chr6 ENr222 132495290 chr6 ENr222 132599490 chr6 ENr222 132620790 chr6 ENr223 73843903 chr6 ENr223 73851703 chr6 ENr223 73965203 chr6 ENr231 148080384 chr1 ENr231 148157384 chr1 ENr231 148299384 chr1 ENr231 148334284 chr1 ENr231 148405784 chr1 ENr232 128913406 chr9 ENr232 128968806 chr9 ENr232 128982306 chr9 ENr232 128983906 chr9 ENr232 128986606 chr9 ENr232 129009106 chr9 ENr232 129064206 chr9 ENr232 129119806 chr9 ENr232 129177406 chr9 ENr232 129244406 chr9 ENr232 129246606 chr9 ENr233 41596239 chr15 ENr233 41610339 chr15 ENr233 42000139 chr15 ENr233 42007639 chr15 ENr233 42009339 chr15 ENr311 53103726 chr14 ENr311 53108426 chr14 ENr311 53135826 chr14 ENr311 53278626 chr14 ENr311 53280626 chr14 ENr311 53387326 chr14 ENr312 130650448 chr11 ENr312 130665848 chr11 ENr312 130698548 chr11 ENr312 130747548 chr11 ENr312 130783948 chr11 ENr312 130840248 chr11 ENr312 130846348 chr11 ENr312 130873948 chr11 ENr312 130932848 chr11 ENr312 130966248 chr11 ENr312 130992848 chr11 ENr312 131015248 chr11 ENr312 131017148 chr11 ENr312 131029448 chr11 ENr312 131037248 chr11 ENr313 60845900 chr16 ENr313 60864100 chr16 ENr313 60964200 chr16 ENr313 61020700 chr16 ENr313 61257100 chr16 ENr321 118979071 chr8 ENr321 118987271 chr8 ENr321 119002671 chr8 ENr321 119015971 chr8 ENr321 119023171 chr8 ENr321 119028971 chr8 ENr321 119040471 chr8 ENr321 119070471 chr8 ENr321 119076671 chr8 ENr321 119092671 chr8 ENr321 119099771 chr8 ENr321 119118771 chr8 ENr321 119129171 chr8 ENr321 119134271 chr8 ENr321 119143271 chr8 ENr321 119151671 chr8 ENr321 119154071 chr8 ENr321 119156171 chr8 ENr321 119157771 chr8 ENr321 119160271 chr8 ENr321 119162171 chr8 ENr321 119169671 chr8 ENr321 119204571 chr8 ENr321 119291571 chr8 ENr321 119338571 chr8 ENr322 98529874 chr14 ENr322 98637574 chr14 ENr322 98669374 chr14 ENr322 98724774 chr14 ENr322 98778174 chr14 ENr322 98794674 chr14 ENr322 98800574 chr14 ENr322 98814074 chr14 ENr322 98920074 chr14 ENr322 98931174 chr14 ENr322 98949574 chr14 ENr323 108415547 chr6 ENr323 108418547 chr6 ENr323 108500347 chr6 ENr324 122685000 chrX ENr324 122783000 chrX ENr324 122838100 chrX ENr331 220151101 chr2 ENr331 220176701 chr2 ENr331 220197501 chr2 ENr331 220203801 chr2 ENr331 220211301 chr2 ENr331 220251701 chr2 ENr331 220267801 chr2 ENr331 220361801 chr2 ENr331 220376101 chr2 ENr331 220389101 chr2 ENr331 220391601 chr2 ENr331 220398101 chr2 ENr331 220418401 chr2 ENr331 220562701 chr2 ENr331 220592201 chr2 ENr332 64083239 chr11 ENr332 64169039 chr11 ENr332 64235439 chr11 ENr332 64250039 chr11 ENr332 64264439 chr11 ENr332 64285239 chr11 ENr332 64287939 chr11 ENr332 64412039 chr11 ENr333 33363879 chr20 ENr333 33488679 chr20 ENr333 33612179 chr20 ENr333 33691379 chr20 ENr333 33693279 chr20 ENr333 33696479 chr20 ENr334 41483345 chr6 ENr334 41518945 chr6 ENr334 41531945 chr6 ENr334 41538545 chr6 ENr334 41547645 chr6 ENr334 41564145 chr6 ENr334 41566045 chr6 ENr334 41570545 chr6 ENr334 41630545 chr6 ENr334 41638445 chr6 ENr334 41646145 chr6 ENr334 41647945 chr6 ENr334 41654745 chr6 ENr334 41660945 chr6 ENr334 41676445 chr6 ENr334 41720245 chr6 ENr334 41756545 chr6 ENr334 41804845 chr6

TABLE 6 ENm001 115465022 chr7 ENm001 115505922 chr7 ENm001 115589622 chr7 ENm001 116016022 chr7 ENm001 116036322 chr7 ENm001 116104822 chr7 ENm001 116111122 chr7 ENm001 116392722 chr7 ENm001 116407622 chr7 ENm001 116485222 chr7 ENm001 116900622 chr7 ENm001 117062422 chr7 ENm001 117069922 chr7 ENm001 117101322 chr7 ENm001 117161922 chr7 ENm001 117216222 chr7 ENm001 117238322 chr7 ENm002 131347464 chr5 ENm002 131359064 chr5 ENm002 131360664 chr5 ENm002 131366464 chr5 ENm002 131569764 chr5 ENm002 131589964 chr5 ENm002 131598564 chr5 ENm002 131622564 chr5 ENm002 131629164 chr5 ENm002 131659264 chr5 ENm002 131665464 chr5 ENm002 131685464 chr5 ENm002 131752164 chr5 ENm002 131760164 chr5 ENm002 131791864 chr5 ENm002 131801264 chr5 ENm002 131809064 chr5 ENm002 131828764 chr5 ENm002 131839264 chr5 ENm002 131841264 chr5 ENm002 132123764 chr5 ENm002 132135264 chr5 ENm002 132152164 chr5 ENm002 132164164 chr5 ENm002 132171664 chr5 ENm002 132203864 chr5 ENm003 115977666 chr11 ENm003 116064166 chr11 ENm003 116072166 chr11 ENm003 116079166 chr11 ENm003 116203566 chr11 ENm003 116213566 chr11 ENm003 116228666 chr11 ENm003 116234366 chr11 ENm003 116250366 chr11 ENm003 116447766 chr11 ENm003 116449466 chr11 ENm004 30305158 chr22 ENm004 30322758 chr22 ENm004 30345358 chr22 ENm004 30771558 chr22 ENm004 30779758 chr22 ENm004 31252458 chr22 ENm004 31254158 chr22 ENm004 31260758 chr22 ENm004 31267158 chr22 ENm004 31276258 chr22 ENm004 31277858 chr22 ENm004 31325858 chr22 ENm004 31327458 chr22 ENm004 31337458 chr22 ENm004 31343758 chr22 ENm004 31352858 chr22 ENm004 31364958 chr22 ENm004 31370758 chr22 ENm004 31404658 chr22 ENm004 31419158 chr22 ENm004 31433258 chr22 ENm004 31434958 chr22 ENm004 31456058 chr22 ENm004 31466158 chr22 ENm004 31474258 chr22 ENm004 31485458 chr22 ENm004 31506258 chr22 ENm004 31538958 chr22 ENm004 31551658 chr22 ENm004 31560458 chr22 ENm004 31601758 chr22 ENm004 31671858 chr22 ENm004 31698558 chr22 ENm004 31707158 chr22 ENm004 31714858 chr22 ENm004 31750258 chr22 ENm005 32721587 chr21 ENm005 32745887 chr21 ENm005 32786987 chr21 ENm005 32793487 chr21 ENm005 32991787 chr21 ENm005 33212187 chr21 ENm005 33675787 chr21 ENm005 33707887 chr21 ENm005 33950587 chr21 ENm005 33962587 chr21 ENm005 33978887 chr21 ENm005 33991787 chr21 ENm005 34065987 chr21 ENm005 34109887 chr21 ENm005 34118187 chr21 ENm005 34139087 chr21 ENm005 34188287 chr21 ENm005 34242387 chr21 ENm005 34262487 chr21 ENm005 34268987 chr21 ENm005 34317687 chr21 ENm006 152665495 chrX ENm006 152689295 chrX ENm006 152727295 chrX ENm006 152785995 chrX ENm006 152806095 chrX ENm006 152808395 chrX ENm006 152826695 chrX ENm006 152837795 chrX ENm006 152850495 chrX ENm006 152869995 chrX ENm006 153298095 chrX ENm006 153324795 chrX ENm006 153332595 chrX ENm006 153527095 chrX ENm006 153529195 chrX ENm006 153577295 chrX ENm006 153591595 chrX ENm007 59186135 chr19 ENm007 59291535 chr19 ENm007 59369135 chr19 ENm007 59404535 chr19 ENm008 67251 chr16 ENm008 103351 chr16 ENm008 321551 chr16 ENm008 336051 chr16 ENm008 447451 chr16 ENm008 473751 chr16 ENm008 481951 chr16 ENm009 5668546 chr11 ENm009 5702146 chr11 ENm010 27024511 chr7 ENm010 27026711 chr7 ENm010 27039511 chr7 ENm010 27063811 chr7 ENm010 27070411 chr7 ENm010 27119011 chr7 ENm010 27159911 chr7 ENm010 27186411 chr7 ENm010 27188211 chr7 ENm011 1798342 chr11 ENm011 1810642 chr11 ENm011 1822942 chr11 ENm011 1841742 chr11 ENm011 1854442 chr11 ENm011 1886142 chr11 ENm011 1933842 chr11 ENm011 1942542 chr11 ENm011 1948042 chr11 ENm011 1959342 chr11 ENm011 1967242 chr11 ENm011 1972042 chr11 ENm011 2013042 chr11 ENm011 2099142 chr11 ENm011 2281842 chr11 ENm012 113649134 chr7 ENm012 113893434 chr7 ENm012 114070334 chr7 ENm012 114076734 chr7 ENm012 114163434 chr7 ENm012 114221234 chr7 ENm012 114237434 chr7 ENm012 114321934 chr7 ENm012 114459134 chr7 ENm012 114465334 chr7 ENm013 89847590 chr7 ENm013 89853590 chr7 ENm013 89897690 chr7 ENm013 89935390 chr7 ENm013 89952090 chr7 ENm013 89981590 chr7 ENm013 90001090 chr7 ENm013 90090990 chr7 ENm014 125923057 chr7 ENm014 125936157 chr7 ENm014 126038857 chr7 ENm014 126423357 chr7 ENm014 126443057 chr7 ENr111 29477666 chr13 ENr111 29494766 chr13 ENr111 29505966 chr13 ENr111 29585466 chr13 ENr111 29593366 chr13 ENr111 29599166 chr13 ENr111 29606566 chr13 ENr111 29615166 chr13 ENr111 29630266 chr13 ENr111 29644766 chr13 ENr111 29659566 chr13 ENr111 29667166 chr13 ENr111 29812966 chr13 ENr111 29836766 chr13 ENr111 29861666 chr13 ENr111 29881566 chr13 ENr111 29903166 chr13 ENr113 118700409 chr4 ENr121 118186854 chr2 ENr121 118200854 chr2 ENr121 118244554 chr2 ENr122 59798651 chr18 ENr131 234390275 chr2 ENr131 234665175 chr2 ENr132 112354715 chr13 ENr132 112360615 chr13 ENr132 112405715 chr13 ENr132 112413815 chr13 ENr132 112415715 chr13 ENr132 112422515 chr13 ENr132 112431815 chr13 ENr132 112459315 chr13 ENr132 112483715 chr13 ENr132 112505815 chr13 ENr132 112596515 chr13 ENr132 112724915 chr13 ENr133 39252417 chr21 ENr133 39282217 chr21 ENr133 39288517 chr21 ENr133 39299117 chr21 ENr133 39315217 chr21 ENr133 39323317 chr21 ENr133 39390217 chr21 ENr133 39391917 chr21 ENr133 39431917 chr21 ENr133 39454717 chr21 ENr133 39724517 chr21 ENr211 25834378 chr16 ENr211 26108478 chr16 ENr211 26200778 chr16 ENr212 141891101 chr5 ENr212 141903201 chr5 ENr212 141910501 chr5 ENr212 141920901 chr5 ENr212 141927101 chr5 ENr212 141950001 chr5 ENr212 141959201 chr5 ENr212 141966601 chr5 ENr212 141981501 chr5 ENr212 141986301 chr5 ENr212 141996801 chr5 ENr212 142004701 chr5 ENr212 142014301 chr5 ENr212 142045501 chr5 ENr212 142057801 chr5 ENr212 142094501 chr5 ENr212 142144501 chr5 ENr212 142205501 chr5 ENr212 142224101 chr5 ENr212 142243301 chr5 ENr212 142261201 chr5 ENr212 142330801 chr5 ENr212 142342001 chr5 ENr213 23755982 chr18 ENr213 23898682 chr18 ENr213 23905582 chr18 ENr213 23912982 chr18 ENr213 23943482 chr18 ENr213 23949882 chr18 ENr213 23967782 chr18 ENr213 23969682 chr18 ENr213 23987182 chr18 ENr213 23993782 chr18 ENr213 23995882 chr18 ENr221 55889757 chr5 ENr221 55918057 chr5 ENr221 55939157 chr5 ENr221 55970257 chr5 ENr221 56019757 chr5 ENr221 56066257 chr5 ENr221 56094557 chr5 ENr221 56158157 chr5 ENr221 56168457 chr5 ENr221 56183257 chr5 ENr221 56294457 chr5 ENr222 132447790 chr6 ENr222 132495090 chr6 ENr222 132695390 chr6 ENr223 73876903 chr6 ENr223 73968703 chr6 ENr231 148096784 chr1 ENr231 148157284 chr1 ENr231 148289184 chr1 ENr231 148298884 chr1 ENr231 148333984 chr1 ENr231 148367984 chr1 ENr231 148370384 chr1 ENr231 148382184 chr1 ENr231 148406184 chr1 ENr232 128968606 chr9 ENr232 128975206 chr9 ENr232 128983706 chr9 ENr232 128987206 chr9 ENr232 129007106 chr9 ENr232 129009406 chr9 ENr232 129026006 chr9 ENr232 129066706 chr9 ENr232 129072206 chr9 ENr232 129078906 chr9 ENr232 129087506 chr9 ENr232 129164406 chr9 ENr232 129177206 chr9 ENr232 129192606 chr9 ENr232 129194306 chr9 ENr232 129244506 chr9 ENr232 129255706 chr9 ENr233 41596339 chr15 ENr233 41692639 chr15 ENr233 41747839 chr15 ENr233 41959339 chr15 ENr233 41981139 chr15 ENr233 41993139 chr15 ENr233 42000739 chr15 ENr233 42010939 chr15 ENr311 53062426 chr14 ENr311 53073926 chr14 ENr311 53107626 chr14 ENr311 53116226 chr14 ENr311 53156126 chr14 ENr311 53173026 chr14 ENr311 53191626 chr14 ENr311 53416926 chr14 ENr312 130699748 chr11 ENr312 130798948 chr11 ENr312 130840148 chr11 ENr312 130846748 chr11 ENr312 130933348 chr11 ENr312 131032348 chr11 ENr312 131045048 chr11 ENr321 118918171 chr8 ENr321 118929271 chr8 ENr321 118976971 chr8 ENr321 118978771 chr8 ENr321 118993771 chr8 ENr321 119002371 chr8 ENr321 119008671 chr8 ENr321 119014871 chr8 ENr321 119022371 chr8 ENr321 119029371 chr8 ENr321 119038571 chr8 ENr321 119076471 chr8 ENr321 119086971 chr8 ENr321 119092871 chr8 ENr321 119100071 chr8 ENr321 119107871 chr8 ENr321 119116671 chr8 ENr321 119127671 chr8 ENr321 119155871 chr8 ENr321 119203171 chr8 ENr321 119224471 chr8 ENr321 119292071 chr8 ENr322 98572274 chr14 ENr322 98669774 chr14 ENr322 98714074 chr14 ENr322 98752374 chr14 ENr322 98754074 chr14 ENr322 98767174 chr14 ENr322 98769474 chr14 ENr322 98777974 chr14 ENr322 98798374 chr14 ENr322 98937774 chr14 ENr322 98949374 chr14 ENr323 108393947 chr6 ENr323 108400347 chr6 ENr323 108418947 chr6 ENr323 108518647 chr6 ENr323 108546847 chr6 ENr323 108562147 chr6 ENr323 108680047 chr6 ENr323 108681847 chr6 ENr323 108705847 chr6 ENr324 122658100 chrX ENr324 122674300 chrX ENr324 122683800 chrX ENr331 220143201 chr2 ENr331 220150901 chr2 ENr331 220160401 chr2 ENr331 220190201 chr2 ENr331 220202401 chr2 ENr331 220211301 chr2 ENr331 220217101 chr2 ENr331 220251901 chr2 ENr331 220267801 chr2 ENr331 220335501 chr2 ENr331 220353801 chr2 ENr331 220372001 chr2 ENr331 220393101 chr2 ENr331 220418601 chr2 ENr331 220562101 chr2 ENr332 63972839 chr11 ENr332 64090439 chr11 ENr332 64183739 chr11 ENr332 64200239 chr11 ENr332 64284139 chr11 ENr332 64367339 chr11 ENr332 64379239 chr11 ENr332 64387639 chr11 ENr332 64413139 chr11 ENr333 33313079 chr20 ENr333 33321179 chr20 ENr333 33357079 chr20 ENr333 33371379 chr20 ENr333 33378879 chr20 ENr333 33390279 chr20 ENr333 33484079 chr20 ENr333 33518579 chr20 ENr333 33612079 chr20 ENr333 33669579 chr20 ENr334 41448045 chr6 ENr334 41519545 chr6 ENr334 41541045 chr6 ENr334 41547745 chr6 ENr334 41564445 chr6 ENr334 41570445 chr6 ENr334 41580745 chr6 ENr334 41596345 chr6 ENr334 41645545 chr6 ENr334 41648045 chr6 ENr334 41654445 chr6 ENr334 41656345 chr6 ENr334 41700145 chr6 ENr334 41721045 chr6 ENr334 41732345 chr6 ENr334 41756845 chr6 ENr334 41799445 chr6 ENr334 41816045 chr6 ENr334 41824045 chr6 ENr334 41843345 chr6

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Figure Legends

FIG. 1: Chromatin acetylation features at promoters and enhancers. ChIP-chip was performed on the acetylated histones H3K9Ac, H3K18Ac, and H3K27Ac, and the enrichment was compared to the (a) promoter and (b) p300 clusters from Heintzman et al in HeLa cells [30]. Each horizontal line details the ChIP-chip enrichment of various chromatin modifications and transcription factors in 10 kb windows. For consistency in comparison, we clustered the data in the same order as Heintzman et al. [30], who used k-means clustering. All three active promoter clusters P2, P3, and P4 are highly enriched in all three acetylated histones, whereas the enhancer clusters are mostly enriched in H3K18Ac and H3K27Ac, but have only weak H3K9Ac enrichment. Average profiles of log enrichment ratios for promoters or p300 binding sites in each cluster are shown at the bottom of each panel.

FIG. 2: Chromatin modifications at Gencode TSSs are generally invariant across 5 cell types. We performed computational clustering using H3K4Me1, H3K4Me3, H3K27Ac, and TAF1 for all five cell types, with 10 kb windows centered at Gencode TSSs (k-means clustering, k=4). In each of the four clusters, the enrichment pattern of chromatin modifications is largely invariant across cell types. Average profiles for each cluster are shown in the bottom panel.

FIG. 3: CTCF binding is invariant across cell types. We performed computational clustering on 729 consensus CTCF binding sites obtained by merging CTCF sites called by Mpeak for each of the five cell types (k-means clustering, k=4). The enrichment pattern of CTCF is generally invariant across cell types. For comparison, we also include ChIP-chip data from a genome-wide survey in IMR90 fibroblast cells [39]. Average profiles for each cluster are shown in the bottom panel.

FIG. 4: The localization pattern of the coactivator p300 is cell-type specific. We performed k-means clustering (k=3) on p300 binding sites obtained by merging p300 sites distal to Gencode TSS's from HeLa, GM, and K562. Unlike the patterns observed at Refseq TSSs and CTCF, the localization of p300 is cell-type dependent. Generally, TSS-distal p300 binding sites are marked by H3K4Me1 and H3K27Ac, but not H3K4Me3. Average profiles for each cluster are shown in the bottom panel.

FIG. 5: The localization pattern of predicted enhancers is cell-type specific. Using the approach from Heintzman et al. [30], we scanned H3K4Me1 and H3K4Me3 in the ENCODE regions to identify putative enhancers in all five cell types. We combined all the putative enhancers and computationally clustered the sites across all five cell types (k-means, k=6). Five of the six clusters show high cell-type specificity, while the sixth contains enhancers that are shared across multiple cell types. Average profiles for each cluster are shown in the bottom panel.

FIG. 6: Differential chromatin enrichment at promoters correlates with differential gene expression. For a given gene differentially expressed in 2 cell types, we computed the average enrichment in a 5-kb window centered at the promoter for each cell type for a given chromatin mark. We then plotted the differential expression as a function of the difference in chromatin enrichment for (a) H3K4Me3 (Pearson correlation coefficient c=0.7417,p=9.54E-06), (b) H3K18Ac (c=0.6876,p=7.41E-05), and (c) TAF1 (c=0.6803, p=9.45E-04).

FIG. 7: Enhancers are clustered at differentially expressed genes, and their effect on gene expression is synergistic. (a) To show that enhancers are clustered, we computed the distance between adjacent enhancers and examined the distribution of these distances. The distribution of adjacent enhancer-enhancer distances (red), as compared to 1000 sets of randomly placed sites (blue), indicates that enhancers are highly clustered. (b) A CTCF block is defined by flanking CTCF binding sites. Using the 729 consensus CTCF binding sites to define CTCF blocks, we counted the average number of enhancers found in blocks relative to the TSSs of differentially expressed and repressed genes. For a given TSS, CTCF block 0 is defined by the CTCF binding sites immediately flanking the TSS, CTCF block −1 is the block immediately upstream of CTCF block 0, CTCF block +1 is the block immediately downstream of CTCF block 0, etc. Differentially expressed genes are enriched in enhancers when compared to differentially repressed genes, with the strongest enrichment found in CTCF block 0.The dotted line indicates the expected average number of enhancers in a CTCF block. For HeLa, GM, and K562, differential expression was defined by an RMA p-value cutoff of 0.01 and a fold change cutoff of 2.0. (c) A detailed view of the distribution of enhancers in CTCF block 0. Here, we show the distribution of enhancer-TSS distances for all enhancers within this CTCF block. Negative distances indicate upstream enhancers, while positive distances indicate downstream enhancers. Enhancers are more concentrated to differentially expressed genes relative to differentially repressed genes. (d) To compare the concentration of enhancers at differentially expressed genes to that expected at random, we randomly placed 100 sets of enhancers and determined the average concentration of enhancers expected. Enhancers are more enriched at differentially expressed genes than would be expected for random distribution. Error bars indicate one standard deviation. (e) For each pair of cell types, we compared the change in enhancer counts within CTCF block 0 for differentially expressed genes with all other genes. The average gene not differentially expressed between a pair of cell types has a difference of −0.05 enhancers, as compared to 1.47 for differentially expressed genes. (f) We examined the effect of enhancer numbers on gene induction. For each TSS with expression data, we computed the difference in the number of enhancers in CTCF block 0, along with the difference in expression of the TSS's gene, for each pair of cell types. Each point is an average of 10 TSSs. The least-squares best fit line is indicated in blue (Pearson correlation coefficient=0.689). Error bars indicate one standard deviation. (b-e) To avoid double-counting, an enhancer can be counted at most once per comparison of 2 cell types. (b-f) Only HeLa, GM, and K562 cell types are considered.

FIG. 8: Summary of ChIP-chip and expression experiments. The number of biological replicates for each cell-type is given.

FIG. 9: Verification of histone modification-based prediction of enhancers. (a-d) The percentage of predicted enhancers within 2.5 kb of hypersensitive sites in HeLa, GM, K562, and ES cells as defined in Xi et al [41]. (e-g) The percentage of p300 sites mapped in HeLa, GM, and K562 cell lines within 2.5 kb of predicted enhancers. Random is defined by 100 random sets of sites of the same size as the predicted enhancer sets, where sampling is restricted to regions on the NimbleGen ENCODE array. The error bars indicate 1 standard deviation.

FIG. 10: Predicted ES enhancers are enriched in known ES-specific transcription factors. The number of enhancer predictions within 2.5 kb to known NANOG, OCT4, and SOX2 binding sites is indicated.

FIG. 11: Examples of differentially expressed and repressed genes having similar or different histone modifications at promoters. (a) A cluster centered at genes differentially upregulated in HeLa cells, as compared to GM cells. Note the differences in promoter chromatin modifications. (b) As in (a), but upregulated in K562 cells, as compared to HeLa cells. Note the similarity in promoter chromatin modifications. The percentage of the genes that are called Present (actively expressed) by Affymetrix expression arrays is indicated at right.

FIG. 12: Shown are the relationships of differential chromatin enrichment to differential gene expression for (a) H3K4Me1 (Pearson correlation coefficient=0.2653, p=0.181), (b) H3K4Me2 (corr=0.3385,p=0.0841), (c) H3K9Ac (corr=0.5367,p=(d) H3K27Ac (corr=0.1318, p=0.5123), (e) CTCF (corr=0.2605, p=0.1894), and (f) p300 (corr=0.5086,p=0.0067).

FIG. 13: Shown are (a) The distribution of adjacent TSS-TSS distances (gray) for Gencode TSSs, as compared to a random placement of sites (black) and (b) the distribution of adjacent CTCF-CTCF distances (gray), as compared to a random placement of sites (black).

FIG. 14: (a) Rather than examining the distribution of all enhancer-TSS distances in a differentially expressed/repressed gene's CTCF block (FIG. 7 c), we examined only the closest one here. While we did observe enrichment in differentially expressed genes, the effect was smaller than that observed when we considered all enhancer-TSS distances. (b) This depicts the results of analysis as in FIG. 7 f, but only considering differentially expressed genes (Pearson correlation coefficient=0.749).

FIG. 15: The same analysis is shown as shown in FIG. 7, but using TSS-distal p300 sites rather than enhancers.

Table Captions

Table 1: ChIP-chip enrichment values across different cell types are much more highly correlated at Gencode promoters and CTCF binding sites than at p300 binding sites and predicted enhancers.

Table 2: Predicted enhancers in HeLa. The first column is the ENCODE region, the second column is the hg17 chromosomal coordinate of the predicted enhancer, and the third column indicates the chromosome where the enhancer is found.

Table 3: Predicted enhancers in GM. The first column is the ENCODE region, the second column is the hg17 chromosomal coordinate of the predicted enhancer, and the third column indicates the chromosome where the enhancer is found.

Table 4: Predicted enhancers in K562. The first column is the ENCODE region, the second column is the hg17 chromosomal coordinate of the predicted enhancer, and the third column indicates the chromosome where the enhancer is found.

Table 5: Predicted enhancers in ES. The first column is the ENCODE region, the second column is the hg17 chromosomal coordinate of the predicted enhancer, and the third column indicates the chromosome where the enhancer is found.

Table 6: Predicted enhancers in dES. The first column is the ENCODE region, the second column is the hg17 chromosomal coordinate of the predicted enhancer, and the third column indicates the chromosome where the enhancer is found. 

1. A method for finding enhancer elements in a genome segment, comprising the steps of: a) determining the chromatin signatures present in the segment; b) analyzing the signatures found for features determined to be characteristic of enhancer elements; and c) identifying as enhancer elements those portions of the analyzed segment that contain said features.
 2. The method according to claim 1 wherein step a) is performed using CUP-chip or ChiP-Seq analysis.
 3. A diagnostic method for cancer and other diseases in a patient, comprising the steps of: a) obtaining chromatin from a tissue, blood or plasma sample, or from a cell line, from the patient; b) determining the signatures present in the chromatin; and c) in the case wherein the quantity of chromatin signatures at a subset of enhancers associated with cancerous cells or with cells that are known to be present in association with another disease state is above a set threshold, identifying the patient as likely having the cancer or other disease state.
 4. A prognostic method for cancer or another disease state in a patient known already to have such a condition, comprising the steps of: a) obtaining chromatin from a tissue, blood or plasma sample, or from a cell line, from the patient; b) determining the quantity and distribution of enhancers in the chromatin that are associated with the cancer or other condition; and c) using the results of the determination in step b) as a basis for assessing the optimal treatment regimen for the patient, for predicting the patient's response to the treatment and for predicting the likelihood or duration of survival of the patient.
 5. A method for monitoring the progress of treatment of a patient having cancer or another disease state, comprising the steps of: a) obtaining, both before and after treatment, chromatin from a tissue, blood or plasma sample, or from a cell line, from the patient; b) determining the change from before the treatment in quantity and distribution of nhancers in the chromatin that are associated with the cancer or other condition; and c) using the results of the determination in step b) to 1) assess the effectiveness of the treatment regimen; 2) assess the need for any adjustments in said regimen; and 3) identify the specifics of any such adjustments.
 6. A method for the identification of differentially expressed and differentially repressed genes in a genome segment from a particular cell type of a host, which comprises employing the method according to claim 1 followed by the further steps of: d) analyzing the distribution of the enhancers using computational clustering analysis; e) identifying those regions of the analyzed genome segment having enrichment and clustering of enhancers as containing a differentially expressed gene or genes; and f) identifying those regions of the analyzed genome segment not having such enrichment and clustering as containing a differentially repressed gene or genes. 